TheEurasian skylark (Alauda arvensis) is apasserine bird in the lark family,Alaudidae. It is a widespread species found across Europe and thePalearctic with introduced populations in Australia, New Zealand and on the Hawaiian Islands. It is a bird of open farmland and heath, known for the song of the male, which is delivered in hovering flight from heights of 50 to 100 metres (160 to 330 ft). The sexes are alike. It is streaked greyish-brown above and on the breast and has a buff-white belly.
The female Eurasian skylark builds an open nest in a shallow depression on open ground well away from trees, bushes and hedges. She lays three to five eggs which she incubates for around 11 days. The chicks are fed by both parents but leave the nest after eight to ten days, well before they can fly. They scatter and hide in the vegetation but continue to be fed by the parents until they can fly at 18 to 20 days of age. Nests are subject to high predation rates by larger birds and small mammals. The parents can have several broods in a single season.
The Eurasian skylark wasdescribed by the Swedish naturalistCarl Linnaeus in 1758 in thetenth edition of hisSystema Naturae and retains its originalbinomial name ofAlauda arvensis.[2] It is one of the four species placed in the genusAlauda.[3] Thegenus name is from theLatinalauda, "lark".Pliny thought the word was originally of Celtic origin. The specificarvensis is also Latin, and means "of the field".[4] The results of amolecular phylogenetic study of the lark family Alaudidae published in 2013 suggested that Eurasian skylark is most closely related to theOriental skylarkAlauda gulgula.[5]
Formerly, many authorities considered theJapanese skylark as a separate species. It is now usually considered asubspecies of the Eurasian skylark.[6] Alternate names for the Eurasian skylark include northern skylark and sky lark.[7]
Some authorities recognise the subspeciesA. a. scotiaTschusi, 1903 andA. a. guillelmiWitherby, 1921.[8] In the above listscotia is included in thenominate subspeciesA. a. arvensis andguillelmi is included inA. a. sierrae.[3]
The Eurasian skylark is 18–19 cm (7.1–7.5 in) in length.[9] Like most other larks, the Eurasian skylark is a rather dull-looking species, being mainly brown above and paler below. It has a short blunt crest on the head, which can be raised and lowered. In flight it shows a short tail and short broad wings. The tail and the rear edge of the wings are edged with white, which are visible when the bird is flying away, but not if it is heading towards the observer. The male has broader wings than the female. Thisadaptation for more efficient hovering flight may haveevolved because of female Eurasian skylarks' preference for males that sing and hover for longer periods and so demonstrate that they are likely to have good overallfitness.
It is known for the song of the male, which is delivered in hovering flight from heights of 50 to 100 m, when the singing bird may appear as just a dot in the sky from the ground. The long, unbroken song is a clear, bubbling warble delivered high in the air while the bird is rising, circling or hovering.[10] The song generally lasts two to three minutes, but it tends to last longer later in the mating season, when songs can last for 20 minutes or more. Atwind farm sites, male skylarks have been found to sing at higher frequencies as a result of wind turbine noise.[11]
This lark breeds across most of Europe and Asia and in the mountains of north Africa. It is mainly resident in the west of its range, but eastern populations are moremigratory, moving further south in winter. Even in the milder west of its range, many birds move to lowlands and the coast in winter. Asian birds, subspeciesA. a. pekinensis, appear as vagrants inAlaska.[12]
In the 19th century multiple batches of Eurasian skylarks were released in New Zealand beginning in 1864 inNelson (in the South Island) and in 1867 inAuckland (in the North Island). The wild population increased rapidly and had spread throughout both the North and South Islands by the 1920s.[13][14]
In Australia the Eurasian skylark was introduced on multiple occasions beginning in 1850.[14] It is now widespread in the southeast of the continent. In New South Wales it mostly occurs south of 33°S. It is widespread throughoutVictoria andTasmania and also occurs in the south-eastern corner ofSouth Australia aroundAdelaide.[15]
The Eurasian skylark was introduced to the southeasternHawaiian Islands beginning in 1865. Although once common, it has declined in abundance onOahu and is no longer found onKauai. A study published in 1986 found European skylarks remained only on the islands ofHawaii andMaui and estimated a total population of 10,000 individuals.[16][17]
The Eurasian skylark was introduced toVancouver Island off the west coast of Canada in 1903; additional birds were introduced in 1913.[18] The population grew and by 1962 there were around 1000 individuals.[19] The numbers have subsequently declined due to loss of habitat, and in 2007 there were estimated to be only around 100 individuals spread over four small areas of theSaanich Peninsula.[20][21]
Eurasian skylarks first breed when they are one year of age. Nesting may start in late March or early April. The nest is probably built by the female alone and is a shallow depression in the ground lined with grasses. The clutch is 3 to 5 eggs. The eggs of the nominate subspecies average 23.4 mm × 16.8 mm (0.92 in × 0.66 in) in size and weigh around 3.35 g (0.118 oz). They have a grey-white or greenish background and are covered in brown or olive spots. They are incubated only by the female beginning after the last egg is laid and hatch synchronously after 11 days.[22] Thealtricial young are cared for by both parents and for the first week are fed almost exclusively on insects.[23] The nestlings fledge after 18 to 20 days but they usually leave the nest after 8 to 10 days. They are independent of their parents after around 25 days. The parents can have up to 4 broods in a season.[22]
The Eurasian skylark walks over the ground searching for food on the soil surface. Its diet consists of insects and plant material such as seeds and young leaves. Unlike afinch (family Fringillidae) it swallows seeds without removing the husk. Insects form an important part of the diet in summer.[24]
In the UK, Eurasian skylark numbers have declined since the 1970s, as determined by the Common Bird Census started in the early 1960s by theBritish Trust for Ornithology. As of 2017, they were estimated to have declined across the UK by 4-10% over the last 10 years, and by 6-28% over the last 22-25 years.[25] TheRSPB have shown that this large decline is mainly due to changes in farming practices and only partly due to pesticides. In the past cereals were planted in the spring, grown through the summer and harvested in the early autumn. Cereals are now planted in the autumn, grown through the winter and are harvested in the early summer. The winter grown fields are much too dense in summer for the Eurasian skylark to be able to walk and run between the wheat stems to find its food.
A list of conservation interventions that could impact the species was published by the RSPB.[26] English farmers are now encouraged and paid to maintain and createbiodiversity for improving thehabitat for Eurasian skylarks.Natural England'sEnvironmental Stewardship Scheme offers 5 and 10-year grants for various beneficial options. For example, there is an option where the farmer can opt to grow a spring cereal instead of a winter one, and leave the stubble untreated with pesticide over the winter. TheBritish Trust for Ornithology likens the stubbles to "giant bird tables" – providing spilt grain and weed seed to foraging birds.[27]
Eurasian skylark pictured in the coat of arms ofLeivonmäki
When the word "lark" is used without specification, it usually refers to this species.[28] Acollective noun for Eurasian skylarks is an "exaltation". Although theOxford English Dictionary describes this usage as "fanciful", it traces it back to a quotation fromJohn Lydgate dating from about 1430.[29] The verb "skylark", originally used by sailors, means "play tricks or practical jokes; indulge in horseplay, frolic". The verb and noun "lark", with similar meaning, may be related to "skylark" or to the dialect word "laik" (New Shorter OED).
^Young, Geoffrey (1985).The Sunday Times Countryside Companion. Country Life Books. p. 145.ISBN978-0-600-35729-2.
^Szymański, P.; Deoniziak, K.; Łosak, K.; Osiejuk, T. S. (2017). "The song of SkylarksAlauda arvensis indicates the deterioration of an acoustic environment resulting from wind farm start-up".Ibis.159 (4):769–777.doi:10.1111/ibi.12514.
^Pyle, R.L.; Pyle, P. (2017)."Eurasian Skylark"(PDF).The Birds of the Hawaiian Islands: Occurrence, History, Distribution, and Status (Version 2). Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Retrieved6 August 2018.
^Campbell, R.W.; Van Damme, L.M.; Johnson, S.R. (1997). Poole, A.F.; Gill, F.B. (eds.). "Eurasian Skylark (Alauda arvensis), version 2.0".The Birds of North America.doi:10.2173/bna.286.
^Davidson, P.J.A. (2015). Davidson, P.J.A.; Cannings, R.J.; Couturier, A.R.; Lepage, D.; Di Corrado, C.M. (eds.)."Sky Lark".The Atlas of the Breeding Birds of British Columbia, 2008-2012. Bird Studies Canada. Retrieved5 August 2018.
Cramp, Stanley, ed. (1988). "Alauda arvensis Skylark".Handbook of the birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume V: Tyrant Flycatchers to Thrushes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 188–205.ISBN978-0-19-857508-5.
Donald, Paul F. (2004).The Skylark. London: T. and A.D. Poyser.ISBN978-0-7136-6568-0.
Higgins, P.J.; Peter, J.M.; Cowling, S.J., eds. (2006)."Alauda arvensis Skylark"(PDF).Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds. Vol. 7, Boatbill to starlings, Part 7 A, Boatbill to larks. Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press. pp. 1039–1052.ISBN978-0-19-553996-7.
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