Eunuchs would usually be servants orslaves who had been castrated to make them less threatening servants of aroyal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence.[6] Seemingly lowly domestic functions—such as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in hislitter, or even relaying messages—could, in theory, give a eunuch "the ruler's ear" and impartde facto power to the formally humble but trusted servant.
Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to the military, the aristocracy, or a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least). They were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private dynasty. Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion.
Eunuchs have been documented in several ancient and medieval societies, including the Byzantine Empire, Imperial China, the Ottoman Empire, and various Middle Eastern cultures. They often held significant power and influence in these societies, particularly in royal courts and harems.[7]
Eunuch comes from theAncient Greek wordεὐνοῦχος[8] (eunoûkhos), first attested in a fragment ofHipponax,[9] the 6th century BCE comic poet and prolific inventor of compound words.[10] The acerbic poet describes a particular lover of fine food having "consumed his estate dining lavishly and at leisure every day on tuna and garlic-honey cheese paté like aLampsaceneeunoukhos."[11]
The earliest surviving etymology of the word is fromlate antiquity. The 5th century (CE)Etymologicon byOrion of Thebes offers two alternative origins for the word eunuch: first,to tēn eunēn ekhein, "guarding the bed", a derivation inferred from eunuchs' established role at the time as"bedchamber attendants" in the imperial palace, and second,to eu tou nou ekhein, "being good with respect to the mind", which Orion explains based on their "being deprived of intercourse (esterēmenou tou misgesthai), the things that the ancients used to call irrational (anoēta, literally: 'mindless')".[12] Orion's second option reflects well-established idioms in Ancient Greek, as shown by entries fortransl. grc – transl. noos,eunoos andekhein inLiddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon, while the first option is not listed as an idiom undereunē in that standard reference work.[13] However, the first option was cited by the late 9th century Byzantine emperorLeo VI in his New Constitution 98 banning the marriage of eunuchs, in which he noted eunuchs' reputation as trustworthy guardians of the marriage bed (eunē) and claimed that the very word eunuch attested to this kind of employment.[14] The emperor also goes further than Orion by attributing eunuchs' lack of male–female intercourse specifically to castration, which he said was performed with the intention "that they will no longer do the things that males do, or at least to extinguish whatever has to do with desire for the female sex".[15] The 11th century Byzantine monkNikon of the Black Mountain, opting instead for Orion's second alternative, stated that the word came fromeunoein (eu "good" +nous "mind"), thus meaning "to be well-minded, well-inclined, well-disposed or favorable", but unlike Orion he argued that this was due to the trust that certain jealous and suspicious foreign rulers placed in the loyalty of their eunuchized servants.[16]Theophylact of Ohrid in a dialogueIn Defence of Eunuchs also stated that the origin of the word was fromeupnoeic andekhein, "to have, hold", since they were always "well-disposed" toward the master who "held" or owned them.[17][18] The 12th centuryEtymologicum Magnum (s.v.eunoukhos) essentially repeats the entry from Orion, but stands by the first option, while attributing the second option to what "some say". In the late 12th century,Eustathius of Thessalonica (Commentaries on Homer 1256.30, 1643.16) offered an original derivation of the word fromeunis +okheuein, "deprived of mating".[citation needed]
In translations of the Bible into modern European languages, such as theLuther Bible or theKing James Bible, the wordeunuchs as found in theLatin Vulgate is usually rendered as an officer, official or chamberlain, consistent with the idea that the original meaning of eunuch was bed-keeper (Orion's first option). Modern religious scholars have been disinclined to assume that the courts of Israel and Judah included castrated men,[19] even though theoriginal translation of the Bible into Greek used the wordeunoukhos[citation needed]
The early 17th-century scholar and theologianGerardus Vossius therefore explains that the word originally designated an office, and he affirms the view that it was derived fromeunē andekhein (i.e. "bed-keeper").[20] He says the word came to be applied to castrated men in general because such men were the usual holders of that office. Still, Vossius notes the alternative etymologies offered by Eustathius ("deprived of mating") and others ("having the mind in a good state"), calling these analyses "quite subtle". Then, after having previously declared that eunuch designated an office (i.e., not a personal characteristic), Vossius ultimately sums up his argument in a different way, saying that the word "originally signified continent men" to whom the care of women was entrusted, and later came to refer to castration because "among foreigners" that role was performed "by those with mutilated bodies".
Modern etymologists have followed Orion's first option.[21][22] In an influential 1925 essay on the word eunuch and related terms,Ernst Maass suggested that Eustathius's derivation "can or must be laid to rest", and he affirmed the derivation fromeunē andekhein ("guardian of the bed"),[21] without mentioning the other derivation fromeunoos andekhein ("having a well-disposed state of mind").
The termeunuch has sometimes figuratively been used for a wide range of men who were seen to bephysically unable to procreate.Hippocrates describes theScythians as being afflicted with high rates oferectile dysfunction and thus "the most eunuchoid of all nations" (Airs Waters Places 22). In theCharlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, the term literally used for impotent males isspado but may also be used for eunuchs[citation needed]
Some men have falsified the status of their castration to gain entrance into the palace. Chinese eunuchLao Ai, for instance, became the lover of the mother ofQin Shi Huang, who bore him two sons, before Lao Ai and his sons were executed after participating in a rebellion against Qin Shi Huang.[27]
InSiam (modern Thailand),Indian Muslims from theCoromandel Coast served as eunuchs in the Thai palace and court.[28][29] The Thai at times asked eunuchs from China to visit the court in Thailand and advise them on court ritual since they held them in high regard.[30][31]
In Imperial China, eunuchs managed the imperial household and were involved in state affairs, often wielding significant political power.[32]
Eunuchs existed in China from about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of theQin dynasty.[36][37] From those ancient times until theSui dynasty, castration was both a traditional punishment (one of theFive Punishments) and a means of gaining employment in the imperial service. Certain eunuchs, such as the Ming dynasty officialZheng He,[citation needed] gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even theGrand Secretaries. Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to it being made illegal.[citation needed]
It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar-officials.[38] As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system, a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor's, and, to the west of it, four stars were identified as his "eunuchs."[39]
The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In hisHistory of Government,Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part.Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternative political will of thebureaucracy. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.[40]
The number of eunuchs in imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912, when the practice of using them ceased. The last imperial eunuch,Sun Yaoting, died in December 1996.[41]
Eunuchs were employed in imperial palaces by some Muslim rulers as servants for female royalty, as guards of the royal harem, and as sexual mates for the nobles. Some of them attained high-status positions in society. An early example of such a high-ranking eunuch wasMalik Kafur. Eunuchs in imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or Chief Eunuch (Urdu:Khwaja Saras), directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength and trustworthiness, allowing them to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of the King's court of advisers.[42][43]
Hijra, aHindi term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would calltransvestites ortransgender women (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to athird gender). The history of this third sex is mentioned in the ancientKama Sutra, which refers to people of a "third sex" (tritiya-prakriti).[44] Some of them undergo ritual castration, but the vast majority do not.
They usually dress insaris orshalwar kameez (traditional garbs worn by women in South Asia) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live on the margins of society and face discrimination.[45][46] Hijra tend to have few options for earning a wage, with many turning to sex work and others performing ritualistic songs and dances.[47] They are integral to several Hindu ceremonies, such as dance programs at marriage ceremonies. They may also earn a living by going uninvited to large ceremonies such as weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events, and singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away.[48] The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Hijra often engage in prostitution and begging to earn money, with begging typically accompanied by singing and dancing. Some Indian provincial officials have used the assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion—they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, embarrassing them into paying.[49] Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination, such as theShemale Foundation Pakistan.
The eunuchs of Korea, calledKorean:내시, 內侍,romanized: naesi,[50] were officials to the king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was inGoryeosa ("History of Goryeo"), a compilation about theGoryeo dynasty period. In 1392, with the founding of theJoseon dynasty, thenaesi system was revised, and the department was renamed the "Department ofNaesi".[51]
Thenaesi system included two ranks, those ofKorean:상선, 尙膳,romanized: Sangseon,lit. 'Chief of Naesi', who held the official title of senior second rank, andKorean:내관, 內官,romanized: Naegwan,lit. 'Common official naesi', both of which held rank as officers. A total of 140naesi served the palace in the Joseon dynasty period. They also took the exam onConfucianism every month.[51] Thenaesi system was repealed in 1894 followingGabo reform.
Eunuchs were the only males outside the royal family allowed to stay inside the palace overnight. In one historical study of court records, going back to 1392, researchers surmised that the average lifespan of eunuchs appeared to have been 70.0 ± 1.76 years, and that this was 14.4–19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-castrated men of similar socioeconomic status.[54] However, the quality of this evidence is lacking, and in a letter to the editor of the journalGerontology, Éric Le Bourg notes that this single study should not be relied upon to conclude that eunuchs in fact lived longer than men, even in this Korean case.[55]
The Vietnamese adopted theeunuch system and castration techniques from China. Records show that the Vietnamese performedcastration in a painful procedure by removing the entire genitalia with both penis and testicles being cut off with a sharp knife or metal blade. The procedure was agonizing since the entire penis was cut off.[56] The young man's thighs and abdomen would be tied and others would pin him down on a table. The genitals would be washed with pepper water and then cut off. A tube would be then inserted into the urethra to allow urination during healing.[57] Many Vietnamese eunuchs were products of self castration to gain access to the palaces and power. In other cases they might be paid to become eunuchs. They served in many capacities, from supervising public works, to investigating crimes, to reading public proclamations.[58]
The four-thousand-year-old EgyptianExecration Texts threaten enemies in Nubia and Asia, specifically referencing "all males, all eunuchs, all women."[59]
Castration was sometimes punitive; underAssyrian law, homosexual acts were punishable by castration.[60][61]
Limestone wall relief depicting an Assyrian royal attendant, a eunuch. From the Central Palace at Nimrud, Iraq, 744–727 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.
Eunuchs were familiar figures in theNeo-Assyrian Empire (Akkadian:ša rēš šarri izuzzū "the one who stands by the head of the king", often abbreviated asša rēš;c. 850 until 622 BCE)[62] and in the court of the Egyptianpharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending withCleopatra VII, 30 BCE). Eunuchs sometimes were used asregents for underage heirs to the throne, as it seems to be the case for theSyro-Hittite state ofCarchemish.[63]
Marmon (1995) writes "Mamluk biographies of the eunuchs often praise their appearance with adjectives such asjamil (beautiful),wasim (handsome), andahsan (the best, most beautiful) orakmal (the most perfect)."[66]
The custom of using eunuchs as servants for women inside the Islamicharems had a preceding example in the life ofMuhammad himself, who used the eunuch Mabur as a servant in the house of his own slave concubineMaria al-Qibtiyya; both of them slaves from Egypt.[67][page needed]Eunuchs were for a long time used in relatively small numbers, exclusively inside harems, but the use of eunuchs expanded significantly when eunuchs started being used also for other offices within service and administration outside of the harem, a use which expanded gradually during theUmayyad Caliphate and had its breakthrough during theAbbasid Caliphate.[67] During the Abbasid period, eunuchs became a permanent institution inside the Islamic harems after the model of theAbbasid harem, such as in theFatimid harem,Safavid harem and theQajar harem.
For several centuries, Muslim eunuchs were tasked with honored roles inMedina andMecca.[68][page needed] They are thought to have been instituted in their role there bySaladin, but perhaps earlier.[68][69] Their tasks included caring for theProphet's Tomb, maintaining borders between males and females where needed, and keeping order in the sacred spaces.[68] They were highly respected in their time and remained there throughout the Ottoman Empire's control of the area and afterward.[68] In the present day, it is reported that only a few remain.[70]
Eunuchs were an active component in theslave market of the Islamic world until the early 20th-century for service inharem as well as in the corps of mostly African eunuchs, known as theAghawat, who guarded the Prophet Muhammad's tomb in Medina and the Kaʿba in Mecca.[71]Most slaves trafficked to Hijaz came there via theRed Sea slave trade. Small African boys were castrated before they were trafficked to the Hijaz, where they were bought at the slave market by the Chief Agha to become eunuch novices.[72]It was noted that boys from Africa were still openly bought to become eunuch novices to serve at Medina in 1895.[73]In Medina, there was a part of town named Harat al-Aghawat (Neighborhood of the Aghas).[74]TheRed Sea slave trade became gradually more suppressed during the 20th-century, andSlavery in Saudi Arabia was abolished in 1962. In 1979, the last Agha was appointed. In 1990, seventeen eunuchs remained.[75]
In theIsma'iliFatimid Caliphate (909–1171 CE), eunuchs played major roles in the politics of the caliphate's court within the institution ofslavery in the Fatimid Caliphate. These eunuchs were normally purchased from slave auctions and typically came from a variety of Arab and non-Arab minority ethnic groups. In some cases, they were purchased from various noble families in the empire, which would then connect those families to the caliph. Generally, though, foreign slaves were preferred, described as the "ideal servants".[76]
Once enslaved, eunuchs were often placed into positions of significant power in one of four areas: the service of the male members of the court; the service of theFatimid harem, or female members of the court; administrative and clerical positions; and military service.[77] For example, during the Fatimid occupation of Cairo, Egyptian eunuchs controlled military garrisons (shurta) and marketplaces (hisba), two positions beneath only the city magistrate in power. However, the most influential Fatimid eunuchs were the ones in direct service to the caliph and the royal household as chamberlains, treasurers, governors, and attendants.[78] Their direct proximity to the caliph and his household afforded them a great amount of political sway. One eunuch,Jawdhar, becamehujja to Imam-Caliphal-Qa'im, a sacred role in Shia Islam entrusted with the imam's choice of successor upon his death.[79]
There were several other eunuchs of high regard in Fatimid history, mainly beingAbu'l-Fadi Rifq al-Khadim andAbu'l-Futuh Barjawan al-Ustadh.[80] Rifq was an African eunuch general who served as governor of the Damascus until he led an army of 30,000 men in a campaign to expand Fatimid control northeast to the city of Aleppo, Syria. He was noted for being able to unite a diverse group of Africans, Arabs, Bedouins, Berbers, and Turks into one coherent fighting force which was able to successfully combat theMirdasids,Bedouins, and Byzantines.
Barjawan was a European eunuch during late Fatimid rule who gained power through his military and political savvy which brought peace between them and the Byzantine empire. Moreover, he squashed revolts in the Libya and the Levant. Given his reputation and power in the court and military he took the reins of the caliphate from his then studental-Hakim bi-Amr Allah; then ruled as the de facto Regent 997 CE. His usurpation of power from the caliph resulted in his assassination in 1000 CE on the orders of al-Hakim.
Since imams during this period ruled over a majority non-Shi'a population, the court eunuchs served an important informal role as ambassadors of the caliph, promoting loyalty and devotion to the Shi'a sect and the imam-caliph himself. The multicultural, multilingual eunuchs were able to connect to the commoners through shared cultural ground.
During the period ofslavery in the Ottoman Empire, eunuchs were typically slaves imported from outside their domains. A fair proportion of male slaves were imported as eunuchs.[81]
The white eunuchs were slaves from theBalkans or theCaucasus, either purchased in the slave markets or taken as boys from Christian families in the Balkans who were unable to pay thejizya tax. They served the recruits at thePalace School and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was theChief Black Eunuch (Kızlar Ağası orDarüssaade Ağası). In control of both the harem and a net of spies among the black eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and thereby could gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers, or other court officials.[82]
One of the most powerful Chief Eunuchs wasBeshir Agha in the 1730s, who played a crucial role in establishing the Ottoman version ofHanafi Islam throughout the Empire by founding libraries and schools.[83]
In the 14th century, the Muslim Egyptian religious scholar Taj-al-Din Abu Nasr 'Abdal-Wahhab al-Subki discussed eunuchs in his bookKitab Mu'id al-Ni'am wa Mubid al-Niqam (Arabic:كتاب معيد النعم ومبيد النقم), a title that has been translated asBook of the Guide to [Divine] Benefits and Averting of [Divine] Vengeance and also asBook of Tutor of Graces and Annihilator of Misfortunes. In a chapter dedicated to eunuchs, Al-Subki made "the clear implication that 'eunuchness' is itself an office," Shaun Marmon explained, adding that al-Subki had specified occupational subgroups for thetawashiya [eunuchs]: thezimam watched over women, and themuqaddam al-mamalik over adolescent boys.[84]
A black eunuch of the Ottoman Sultan. Photograph byPascal Sebah, 1870s.
Coptic castration of slaves was discussed byPeter Charles Remondino, in his bookHistory of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to the Present,[86] published in 1900. He refers to the "Abou-Gerghè" monastery in a place he calls "Mount Ghebel-Eter". He adds details not mentioned by Andrews such as the insertion of bamboo into the victim. Bamboo was used with Chinese eunuchs. Andrews states his information is derived from an earlier work,Les Femmes, les eunuques, et les guerriers du Soudan,[86] published by a French explorer, CountRaoul du Bisson, in 1868, though this detail does not appear in Du Bisson's book.[87]
Remondino's claims were repeated in similar form by Henry G. Spooner in 1919, in theAmerican Journal of Urology and Sexology. Spooner, an associate ofWilliam J. Robinson, referred to the monastery as "Abou Gerbe in Upper Egypt".[88]
According to Remondino, Spooner, and several later sources, the Coptic priests sliced the penis and testicles offNubian orAbyssinian slave boys around the age of eight. The boys were captured from Abyssinia and other areas inSudan likeDarfur andKordofan, then brought into Sudan and Egypt. During the operation, the Coptic clergyman chained the boys to tables, then, after slicing off their sexual organs, stuck a piece of bamboo into the urethra and submerged them in neck-high sand under the sun. The mortality rate was said to be high. Slave traders made especially large profits off eunuchs from this region.[89][90][91]
The practice was also well established in other Mediterranean areas among the Greeks and Romans, although a role as court functionary does not arise until Byzantine times. TheGalli or Priests ofCybele were eunuchs.
In the late period of the Roman Empire, after the adoption of the oriental royal court model by the EmperorsDiocletian (r. 284–305) andConstantine (r. 306–337), emperors were surrounded by eunuchs for such functions as bathing, haircutting, dressing, and bureaucratic functions, in effect acting as a shield between the emperor and his administrators from physical contact, thus enjoying great influence in the imperial court (seeEusebius andEutropius).Julian (r. 361–363) released the eunuchs from service because he felt they were overpaid, and he subsequently realized how much they had contributed to palace operations.[92]
The Roman poetMartial rails against a woman who had sex with partially castrated eunuchs (those whose testicles were removed or rendered inactive only) in the bitter epigram (VI, 67): "Do you ask, Panychus, why your Caelia only consorts with eunuchs? Caelia wants the flowers of marriage – not the fruits."[93] It is up for debate whether this passage is representative of any sort of widely practiced behavior, however.
At theByzantine imperial court, there were a great number of eunuchs employed in domestic and administrative functions, actually organized as a separate hierarchy, following a parallel career of their own. Archieunuchs—each in charge of a group of eunuchs—were among the principal officers inConstantinople, under theemperors.[94] UnderJustinian in the 6th century, the eunuchNarses functioned as a successful general in a number of campaigns.
Advantages of eunuchs were that they prevented offices from becoming hereditary, allowing appointments to be made on merit; they were more dedicated to their jobs, not being distracted by family obligations; and they were ineligible for the throne, and for that reason thought by emperors to be safe.[95] Those who had been deprived not only of their testicles but also their penises were known in Greek ascarzimasia, and were highly prized.[96]
Castration as part of religious practice, and eunuchs occupying religious roles, have been established prior to classical antiquity. Archaeological finds atÇatalhöyük inAnatolia indicate worship of a 'Magna Mater' figure, a forerunner of the goddessCybele found in laterAnatolia and other parts of the near East.[97] Later Roman followers of Cybele were calledGalli, who practiced ritual self-castration, known assanguinaria.[97] Eunuch priests also figured prominently in theAtargatis cult in Syria during the first centuries AD.[98]
The practice of religious castration continued into the Christian era, with members of the early church practicing celibacy (including castration) for religious purposes,[99] although the extent and even the existence of this practice among Christians is subject to debate.[100] The early theologianOrigen found evidence of the practice inMatthew 19:10–12:[101] "His disciples said to him, 'If such is the case of a man with his wife, it is better not to marry.' But he said to them, 'Not everyone can accept this teaching, but only those to whom it is given. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. Let anyone accept this who can.'"(NRSV)
Tertullian, a 2nd-century Church Father, described Jesus himself and Paul of Tarsus asspadones, which is translated as "eunuchs" in some contexts.[102] Quoting from the cited book:[102] "Tertullian takes 'spado' to mean virgin". The meaning ofspado in late antiquity can be interpreted as a metaphor for celibacy. Tertullian even goes so far with the metaphor as to say St. Paul had been "castrated".[102] Tertullian also ridiculed his theological opponentMarcion of Sinope as a eunuch who advocated for sexual abstinence.[103]
Eunuch priests have served various goddesses from India for many centuries. Similar phenomena are exemplified by some modern Indian communities of thehijra, which are associated with a deity and with certain rituals and festivals – notably the devotees ofYellammadevi, orjogappas, who are not castrated,[104] and the Ali of southern India, of whom at least some are.[105]
The 18th-century RussianSkoptzy (скопцы) sect was an example of acastration cult, where its members regarded castration as a way of renouncing thesins of the flesh.[106] Several members of the 20th-centuryHeaven's Gate cult were found to have been castrated, apparently voluntarily and for the same reasons.[107]
[6] Wherefore they are no more twain, but one flesh. What therefore God hath joined together, let not man put asunder. [7] They say unto him, Why did Moses then command to give a writing of divorcement, and to put her away? [8] He saith unto them, Moses because of the hardness of your hearts suffered you to put away your wives: but from the beginning it was not so. [9] And I say unto you, Whosoever shall put away his wife, except [it be] for fornication, and shall marry another, committeth adultery: and whoso marrieth her which is put away doth commit adultery. [10] His disciples say unto him, If the case of the man be so with [his] wife, it is not good to marry. [11] But he said unto them, All [men] cannot receive this saying, save [they] to whom it is given. [12] For there are some eunuchs, which were so born from [their] mother's womb: and there are some eunuchs, which were made eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that is able to receive [it], let him receive [it].
— Matthew 19:6–12 KJV
The reference to "eunuchs" in Matthew 19:12 has yielded various interpretations.
One of the earliest converts to Christianity was anEthiopian eunuch who was a high court official ofCandace, the Queen of Ethiopia, but was already a eunuch at the time of conversion (Acts 8:27–39).
Eunuchs are mentioned many times in the Bible, such as in theBook of Isaiah (56:4) using the word סריס (saris). Although the AncientHebrews did not practice castration, eunuchs were common in other cultures featured in the Bible, such asancient Egypt,Assyria andBabylonia, theAchaemenid Empire, andancient Rome. In theBook of Esther, servants of thePersian harem ofAhasuerus, such as Hegai and Shashgaz, as well as other servants such as Hatach, Harbonah, Bigthan, and Teresh, are referred to assarisim. Being exposed to the consorts of the king, they would likely have been castrated.
TheHebrew wordsaris (Hebrew:סָרִיס,romanized: sāris) derives fromša-rēši, theAkkadian word for eunuch, and thus has been generally understood by scholars as referring to eunuchs.[109][110] However, its technical meaning is a male who has not shown signs of typical sexual maturity by the age of 20.[citation needed] Per theTalmud, only one known as asaris adam – a castrated male; one made sterile intentionally or via accidental injury – might be considered a eunuch (asaris ḥama is one who is congenitally sterile, and is not considered a eunuch).[111]
The role of eunuchs in society was often dictated by social and cultural norms, as well as political necessities.[112] For instance, eunuchs were seen as reliable because they could not produce heirs and thus were considered less likely to establish rival power bases. The practice of castration was often a means of ensuring loyalty and controlling certain populations.[113]
Eunuchs castrated beforepuberty were also valued and trained in several cultures for their exceptional voices, which retained a childlike and other-worldly flexibility and treble pitch (an ability to sing in a high-pitched voice, akin to the pitch that a prepubescent boy can reach). Such eunuchs were known ascastrati.
As women were sometimes forbidden to sing in Church, their place was taken by castrati. Castrati became very popular in 18th centuryopera seria. The practice, known ascastratism, remained popular until the 18th century and was known into the 19th century. The last famous Italian castrato,Giovanni Battista Velluti, died in 1861. The sole existing sound recording of a castrato singer documents the voice ofAlessandro Moreschi, the last eunuch in theSistine Chapel Choir, who died in 1922.
This Italian practice of castrating young males to maintain their soprano voices was ended by PopeLeo XIII (1878).[114]
Sima Qian (old romanization Ssu-ma Chi'en; 2nd/1st century BCE): the first person to have practiced modernhistoriography – gathering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources to write his monumental history of the Chinese Empire.
Ganymedes, 1st century BCE: highly capable adviser and general ofCleopatra VII's sister and rival, PrincessArsinoe IV. Unsuccessfully attacked Julius Caesar three times at Alexandria.
Sporus (Died 69): an attractive Roman boy who was castrated by, and later married to, EmperorNero.
Unidentified "Ethiopian eunuch" (1st century AD), from the Kingdom of Kush in modern-day Sudan, described in theActs of the Apostles (chapter 8).Philip the Evangelist, one of the original seven deacons, is directed by the Holy Spirit to catch up to the eunuch's chariot and hears him reading from theBook of Isaiah (chapter 53).Philip explained that the section prophesies Jesus' crucifixion, which Philip described to the eunuch. The eunuch was baptized shortly thereafter.
Eutropius (died 399): only eunuch known to have attained the highly distinguished office ofRoman Consul.
Chrysaphius (died 450): chief minister of Eastern Roman EmperorTheodosius II, architect of imperial policy towards the Huns.
Narses (478–573): general of Byzantine emperorJustinian I, responsible for destroying theOstrogoths in 552 at theBattle of Taginae in Italy and reconquering Rome for the empire.
Solomon (480s/490s–544): general and governor of Africa under Justinian I.
Ignatius of Constantinople (799–877): twicePatriarch of Constantinople during troubled political times (847–858 and 867–877). First absolutely unquestioned eunuch saint, recognized by both the Orthodox and Roman Churches. (There are a great many early saints who were probably eunuchs, though few either as influential nor unquestioned as to their castration.)
Yazaman al-Khadim (died 891): Emir ofTarsus and successful commander in the wars against the Byzantine Empire.
Mu'nis al-Muzaffar (845/846–933/934): Commander-in-chief of theAbbasid armies between 908 and his death.
Lý Thường Kiệt (1019–1105): general during theLý dynasty in Vietnam. Penned what is considered the first Vietnamese declaration of independence. Regarded as a Vietnamese national hero.
Kim Cheo Seon [ko] (1421–1505): one of the most famous eunuchs during the KoreanJoseon dynasty period, ably served kings in the Joseon dynasty. His life is the subject of ahistorical drama in South Korea.
Liu Jin (1451–1510): corrupt eunuch official of the Ming dynasty andde facto emperor, member of theEight Tigers.
Alessandro Moreschi (1858–1922): Italian castrato singer, the only one to make recordings.
Xin Xiuming (1878–1959): Entered Emperor Puyi's service in 1902; left palace service in 1911; became abbot of the Taoist temple at theBabaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery by 1930; wrote memoirEunuch's Recollection (老太监的回忆).[citation needed]
Sun Yaoting (1902–1996): last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history.
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^"Eunuch".The New Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1998. p. 634.ISBN9780198612636.
^Maekawa, Kazuya (1980). Animal and human castration in Sumer, Part II: Human castration in the Ur III period. Zinbun [Journal of the Research Institute for Humanistic Studies, Kyoto University], pp. 1–56.
^Maekawa, Kazuya (1980). Female Weavers and Their Children in Lagash – Presargonic and Ur III. Acta Sumerologica 2:81–125.
^Miller, Margaret (1997).Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 213.ISBN0-521-49598-9.
^Hawkins, Shane (2013).Studies in the Language of Hipponax. Bremen: Hempen Verlag. pp. 111–120.
^West, M.L., ed. and trans. (1993).Greek Lyric Poetry. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 117.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Sturz, Friedrich Wilhelm, ed. (1820).Orionis Thebani Etymologicon. Leipzig: Weigel. p. 58.
^Liddell, H.G. and R. Scott (1883).Greek-English Lexicon. New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 607–608, 1009.
^Noailles, P., and A. Dain (1944).Les Nouvelles de Leon VI le Sage. Paris. p. 327.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Noailles, P., and A. Dain (1944).Les Nouvelles de Leon VI le Sage. Paris. p. 325.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Benesevic, V.N. (1917).Taktikon Nikona Cernogorca. St. Petersburg. p. 99.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Gautier, Paul, ed. and tr. (1980).Théophylacte d'Achrida: Discours, Traités, Poésies. Thessaloniki: Association de Recherches Byzantines. pp. 308–309.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Ringrose, Kathryn M. (2003).The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium. Chicago: University of Chicago. pp. 16, 39.ISBN0-226-72015-2.
^Kittel, Gerhard; Friedrich, Gerhard (1985). Bromiley, Geoffrey (ed.).Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Abridged in One Volume. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. p. 277.
^Vossius, Gerardus (1662).Etymologicon Linguae Latinae. Amsterdam: Lodewijk and Daniel Elsevier. p. 198.
^abMaass, Ernst (1925). "Eunouchos und Verwandtes".Rheinisches Museum.74: 437.
^Chantraine, Pierre (1970).Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque – Histoire des mots, Vol. 2, E-K. Paris: Éditions Klincksieck. pp. 385–386.
^Melissa S. Dale,Inside the World of the Eunuch (2018,ISBN9888455753), page 14.
^Victor T. Cheney,A Brief History Of Castration: Second Edition (2006,ISBN1467816663), page 14.
^For an extended discussion see Mitamura Taisuke,Chinese Eunuchs: The Structure of Intimate Politics tr. Charles A. Pomeroy, Tokyo 1970, a short, condensed version of Mitamura's original book =三田村泰助,宦官, Chuko Shinsho, Tokyo 1963
^abTaef El-Azhari, E. (2019). Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661-1257. Storbritannien: Edinburgh University Press.
^abcdMarmon, Shaun Elizabeth (1995).Eunuchs and sacred boundaries in Islamic society. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN1-4294-0638-0.OCLC191935606.
^Marmon, S. (1995). Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society. Ukraina: Oxford University Press. 105
^Junne, G. H. (2016). The Black Eunuchs of the Ottoman Empire: Networks of Power in the Court of the Sultan. Storbritannien: Bloomsbury Publishing. 12
^Hathaway, J. (2018). The Chief Eunuch of the Ottoman Harem: From African Slave to Power-Broker. Indien: Cambridge University Press. 123
^Marmon, S. (1995). Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society. Ukraina: Oxford University Press. IX
^El Cheikh, N. M. (2017). Guarding the harem, protecting the state: Eunuchs in a fourth/tenth-century Abbasid court. In Celibate and Childless Men in Power (pp. 65–78). Routledge.
^Gul, R., Zafar, N., & Naznin, S. (2021). Legal and Social Status of Eunuchs Islam and Pakistan. sjesr, 4(2), 515–523.
^Höfert, A.; Mesley, M. M.; Tolino, S, eds. (15 August 2017).Celibate and Childless Men in Power: Ruling Eunuchs and Bishops in the Pre-Modern World (1st ed.). Routledge.ISBN9781315566658.
^Marmon, S. E. (1995). Eunuchs and sacred boundaries in Islamic society. Oxford University Press on Demand.
^Tolino, S. (2017). Eunuchs in the Fatimid empire: Ambiguities, gender and sacredness. In Celibate and Childless Men in Power (pp. 246–267). Routledge.
^Henry G. Spooner (1919).The American Journal of Urology and Sexology, Volume 15. The Grafton Press. p. 522. Retrieved11 January 2011.In the Turkish Empire most of the eunuchs are furnished by the monastery Abou-Gerbe in Upper Egypt where the Coptic priests castrate Nubian and Abyssinian boys at about eight years of age and afterward sell them to the Turkish market. The Coptic priests perform the 'complete' operation, that is, they cut away the whole scrotum, testes and penis.
^American Medical Association (1898).The Journal of the American Medical Association, Volume 30, Issues 1–13. American Medical Association. p. 176. Retrieved11 January 2011.the Coptic priests castrate Nubian and Abyssinian slave boys at about 8 years of age and afterward sell them to the Turkish market. Turks in Asia Minor are also partly supplied by Circassian eunuchs. The Coptic priests before.
^Scholz, Piotr O. (2001).Eunuchs and Castrati: A Cultural History. Translated by Broadwin, John A. and Shelley L. Frisch. Markus Weiner Publishers. p. 178.
^Penzer, N. M. (1965) The Harem, Spring Books, London, p. 147.
^Caner, Daniel (1997). "The Practice and Prohibition of Self-Castration in Early Christianity".Vigiliae Christianae.51 (4). Brill:396–415.doi:10.1163/157007297X00291.JSTOR1583869.
^Hester, David (2005). "Eunuchs and the Postgender Jesus: Matthew 19:12 and Transgressive Sexualities".Journal for the Study of the New Testament.28 (1). Sage Publications:13–40.doi:10.1177/0142064X05057772.S2CID145724743.
^Frend, W. H. C.,The Rise of Christianity, Fortress Press, Philadelphia, 1984, p. 374, which in footnote 45 cites Eusebius,Historia Ecclesiastica VI.8.2
^Jean-Jaques Glassner:Mesopotamian Chronicles. Atlanta 2004, p. 169.
^Kuefler, Mathew (2001).The manly eunuch: masculinity, gender ambiguity, and Christian ideology in late antiquity. University of Chicago Press. p. 266.ISBN978-0226457390.
^Frick, Karl R. H. (1975).Licht und Finsternis: gnostisch-theosophische und freimaurerisch-okkulte Geheimgesellschaften bis an die Wende zum 20. Jahrhundert [Light and darkness: Gnostic-Theosophical and Freemason-occult secret societies to the turn of the 20th century] (in German). Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt. p. 456.ISBN978-3201009515.
祝建龙 (Zhu Jianlong) (April 2009).辽代后宫制度研究 [Research on the System of Imperial Harem in the Liao Dynasty] (Master's thesis) (in Chinese).Jilin University. Retrieved4 October 2013.
Wilson, Jean D.; Roehrborn, Claus (1 December 1999). "Long-Term consequences of Castration in Men: Lessons from the Skoptzy and the Eunuchs of the Chinese and Ottoman Courts".The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism.84 (12):4324–4331.doi:10.1210/jcem.84.12.6206.PMID10599682.
Mary M. Anderson, Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China (Prometheus Books, 1990)
David Ayalon, Eunuchs, Caliphs and Sultans: A Study in Power Relationships (Magnes Press, 1999)
Patrick Barbier, The World of the Castrati: The History of an Extraordinary Operatic Phenomenon (Souvenir Press Ltd, 2010)
Vern L. Bullough and James Brundage (eds), Handbook of Medieval Sexuality (Routledge, 2000), especially chapter by M.S. Kuefler, 'Castration and Eunuchism in the Middle Ages'
Laura Engelstein, Castration and the Heavenly Kingdom: A Russian Folktale (Cornell University Press, 2003)
Zia Jaffrey, The Invisibles: A Tale of the Eunuchs of India (W&N, 1997)
Shaun Marmon, Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society (Oxford University Press, 1993)
Taisuke Mitamura (trans. by Charles A. Pomeroy), Chinese Eunuchs: The Structure of Intimate Politics (Tuttle Publishing, 1970)
Serena Nanda,Neither Man nor Woman: The Hijras of India (Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc, 1998)
Kathryn M. Ringrose,The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium (University of Chicago Press, 2003)
Lynn E. Roller,In Search of God the Mother: The Cult of Anatolian Cybele (University of California Press, 1999)
Piotr O. Scholz,Eunuchs and Castrati: A Cultural History (Markus Wiener Publishers, 2014)
Shaun Tougher (ed.),Eunuchs in Antiquity and Beyond (Classical Press of Wales, 2002)
Shaun Tougher,The Eunuch in Byzantine History and Society (Routledge, 2008)
Shih-Shan Henry Tsai,The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (State University of New York Press, 1995)
Caroline Vout,Power and Eroticism in Imperial Rome (Cambridge University Press, 2007)
In Our Time: The Eunuch. Presenter:Melvyn Bragg. Interviewed Guests: Karen Radner, Professor of Ancient Near Eastern History atUniversity College London; Shaun Tougher, Reader in Ancient History atCardiff University; Michael Hoeckelmann, British Academy Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of History atKing's College London. Producer: Thomas Morris. Broadcaster:BBC Radio 4. Date: 26 February 2015.
