Europeans are the focus of Europeanethnology, the field ofanthropology related to the variousethnic groups that reside in thestates of Europe. Groups may be defined by common ancestry, language, faith, historical continuity, etc. There are no universally accepted and precise definitions of the terms "ethnic group" and "nationality", but in the context of European ethnography in particular, the termsethnic group,people,nationality andethno-linguistic group are used as mostly synonymous. Preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe, and the context in which they may be classified by those terms.[1]
The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans in 2002.[2] TheRussians are the most populous among Europeans, with a population of roughly 120 million.[3]
In 2021, the number of non-EU nationals living in EU members states was 23.7 million (5.3% of the EU population). The countries with the largest population of non-nationals were Germany, Spain, France and Italy. These four Member States represented 70.3% of all non-EU nationals living in the EU Member States.[4] Thepopulation of the European Union, with some 450 million residents, accounts for two thirds of the current European population.
Of the total population of Europe of some 740 million (as of 2010), close to 90% (or some 650 million) fall within three large branches ofIndo-European languages, these being:
Three stand-aloneIndo-European languages do not fall within larger sub-groups and are not closely related to those larger language families, but are still languages that are used in areas considered part of the European continent:
Indo-Aryan is represented by theRomani language spoken by Roma people of eastern Europe, and is at root related to the Indo-Aryan languages of theIndian subcontinent.
Besides the Indo-European languages, there are otherlanguage families on the European continent which are considered unrelated to Indo-European:
Language isolates:Basque, spoken in the Basque regions of Spain and France, is an isolate language, the only one in Europe, and is believed to be unrelated to any other living language; though it is related to the extinctAquitanian language.
Regarding theEuropean Bronze Age, the only relatively likely reconstruction is that ofProto-Greek (ca. 2000 BC). AProto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic (assumed for theBell beaker period), and aProto-Balto-Slavic language (assumed for roughly theCorded Ware horizon) has been postulated with less confidence.Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early (Bronze Age) Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages.
According to geneticistDavid Reich, based onancient human genomes that his laboratory sequenced in 2016, Europeans descend from a mixture of four distinct ancestral components.[13]
Exodus ofMaghreb Christians, namely Berbers andAfrican Romance speakers, from the 7th to the 12th centuries.[14]
The westernKipchaks known asCumans entered the lands of present-day Ukraine in the 11th century.
TheMongol/Tatar invasions (1223–1480), andOttoman control of the Balkans (1389–1912). These medieval incursions account for the presence of EuropeanTurks andTatars.
Book IX ofIsidore'sEtymologiae (7th century) treatsde linguis, gentibus, regnis, militia, civibus (concerning languages, peoples, realms, war and cities).Ahmad ibn Fadlan in the 10th century gives an account of theBolghar and theRus' peoples.William Rubruck, while most notable for his account of theMongols, in his account of his journey to Asia also gives accounts of theTatars and theAlans.Saxo Grammaticus andAdam of Bremen give an account of pre-Christian Scandinavia. TheChronicon Slavorum (12th century) gives an account of the northwestern Slavic tribes.
Gottfried Hensel in his 1741Synopsis Universae Philologiae published one of the earliest ethno-linguistic map of Europe, showing the beginning of thepater noster in the various European languages and scripts.[15][16]In the 19th century, ethnicity was discussed in terms ofscientific racism, and the ethnic groups of Europe were grouped into a number of "races",Mediterranean,Alpine andNordic, all part of a larger "Caucasian" group.
The beginnings of ethnic geography as an academic subdiscipline lie in the period following World War I, in the context ofnationalism, and in the 1930s exploitation for the purposes offascist andNazi propaganda, so that it was only in the 1960s that ethnic geography began to thrive as abona fide academic subdiscipline.[17]
The origins of modern ethnography are often traced to the work ofBronisław Malinowski, who emphasized the importance of fieldwork.[18]The emergence ofpopulation genetics further undermined the categorisation of Europeans into clearly defined racial groups. A 2007 study on thegenetic history of Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east–west axis of differentiation across Europe, separating the indigenousBasques,Sardinians andSami from other European populations.Despite these stratifications it noted the unusually high degree of European homogeneity: "there is low apparent diversity in Europe with the entire continent-wide samples only marginally more dispersed than single population samples elsewhere in the world."[19][20][21]
The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of Europeans.[2]
The member states of theCouncil of Europe in 1995 signed theFramework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The broad aims of the convention are to ensure that the signatory states respect the rights of national minorities, undertaking to combat discrimination, promote equality, preserve and develop the culture and identity of national minorities, guarantee certain freedoms in relation to access to the media, minority languages and education and encourage the participation of national minorities in public life. The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities defines a national minority implicitly to include minorities possessing a territorial identity and a distinct cultural heritage. By 2008, 39 member states had signed and ratified the convention, with the notable exception ofFrance.
The definitions that apply to who is considered an indigenous minority group in Europe can vary widely. One criterion is the so-called "time element", or how long the original inhabitants of a land occupied it before the arrival of later settlers. As there is no fixed time frame, considering a specific group to be indigenous is often context-dependent.[22] A number of ethnic groups in Europe claim indigenous status and are spread throughout the continent.
In Russia, the UralicNenets andKomi peoples in the north are considered to be indigenous peoples; the Nenets are divided into three distinct groups based on their way of life, Tundra, Forest, and Yaran, and have two autonomous regions that mention them as the majority inhabitants (Nenets,Yamalo-Nenets). Similarly, the Komi are divided into two main groups, the Zyryans and the Permiaks, which are individually divided into their own unique subgroupings.[23] The Komi primarily live in theKomi Republic, though much of the population of the Republic are ethnic Russians. The Nenets are one of the 40 groups in Russia that are recognized as indigenous small-numbered peoples, while the Komi are seeking this recognition.[24] TheCircassians of southern Russia and theNorth Caucasus are another indigenous people to the country, though following theCircassian genocide, more Adyghe live in Turkey than in their ancestral homeland.[25]
In theCrimean Peninsula, the TurkicCrimean Tatars,Krymchaks andCrimean Karaites are indigenous peoples. The Crimean Tatars were the majority ethnic group of the Crimean Peninsula until the 19th century.[26] Meanwhile, the Krymchaks and Karaites differ by their much smaller population size (around 1–2,000 each) and their adherence toJudaism, with more of both groups now residing inIsrael. The Crimean Tatars were declared an indigenous peoples in the 1996Constitution of Ukraine,[27] while plans were declared in 2021 to grant Karaites and other groups the same status.
InScandinavia, which comprisesNorway,Finland, andSweden, theSámi people inhabit the cultural region ofSápmi (which also includes parts of Russia). Up to today, the people have experienced great discrimination as an indigenous group, with theNorwegian andSwedish governments having previously been accused of policies ofNorwegianization andSwedification against them.[28][29] While challenges regarding the rights of the Sámi remain, theChurch of Sweden made a formal apology for its role in forced conversions, and outlined a one-year plan for reconciliation.[30]
Many non-European ethnic groups and nationalities have migrated to Europe over the centuries. Although some groups arrived centuries ago, the vast majority of non-indigenous ethnic groups have arrived more recently, mostly in the 20th and 21st centuries. Often, they come from former colonies of the British, Dutch, French, Portuguese and Spanish empires.
Ashkenazi Jews: approximately 1.4 million, mostly in theUnited Kingdom,France,Russia,Germany andUkraine. They are believed by scholars to have arrived from Israel via southern Europe[54][55][56][57][58] in theRoman era[59] and settled in France and Germany towards the end of the first millennium. The NaziHolocaust wiped out the vast majority duringWorld War II and forced most to flee, with many of them going back to Israel.
Bukharan Jews: fromUzbekistan, approximately 320,000, now half in Israel, 12% in the United States (2/3 in theNew York metropolitan area), 5% the United Kingdom, and 3% scattered in Austria, Germany, Uzbekistan, Canada, and Russia.
Sephardi Jews: approximately 300,000, mostly inFrance. They arrived viaSpain andPortugal in the pre-Roman[60] and Roman[61] eras, and were forcibly converted or expelled in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Mizrahi Jews: approximately 300,000, mostly inFrance, via Islamic-majority countries of the Middle East.
Italqim: approximately 50,000, mostly inItaly, since the 2nd century BC.
Romaniotes: approximately 6,000, mostly inGreece, with communities dating at least from the 1st century AD.
Assyrians: In Sweden, Assyrians number of 150,000 people,[62] and the city ofSödertälje is considered the unofficial Assyrian capital of Europe. Other European countries that have a sizeable Assyrian population are Germany, France, the Netherlands, and in smaller numbers in Great Britain and Armenia. Depending on religious denomination, tribe, or country of origin, they may alsoidentify as Syriac, Chaldean, or Aramean, and they have formed different organizations that aim to represent them under these labels.
Kurds: approximately 2.5 million, mostly in the Germany, France and Sweden.
Horn Africans (Somalis,Ethiopians,Eritreans,Djiboutians, and theNorthern Sudanese): approximately 700,000, mostly in Scandinavia, the UK, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Finland, and Italy. Majority arrived to Europe asrefugees. Proportionally few live in Italy despite former colonial ties, most live in the Nordic countries.
Sub-Saharan Africans (many ethnicities includingAfro-Caribbeans,African-Americans,Afro-Latinos and others by descent): approximately 5 million in 2007, with large populations in France, the UK and Germany, with populations also in the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Portugal and elsewhere.[64]
Latin Americans: approximately 2.2 million in 2007, mainly in Spain and to a lesser extent Italy and the UK.[65] See alsoLatin American Britons (80,000 Latin American born in 2001).[66]
Chilean refugees escaping theAugusto Pinochet regime of the 1970s formed communities in France, Sweden, the UK, former East Germany and the Netherlands.
Venezuelans: around 520,000 mostly in Spain (200,000), Portugal (100,000), France (30,000), Germany (20,000), UK (15,000), Ireland (5,000), Italy (5,000) and the Netherlands (1,000).[citation needed]
South Asians: approximately 3-4 million, mostly in the UK but also several hundred thousand in Germany and the Netherlands.ARoma makes a complaint to a local magistrate inHungary. BySándor Bihari, 1886.
Romani (Gypsies): approximately 4 or 10 million (although estimates vary widely), dispersed throughout Europe but with large numbers concentrated in the Balkans area, they are of ancestral South Asian andEuropean descent,[71] originating from thenorthern regions of theIndian subcontinent.
Indians: approximately 2 million, mostly in the UK, also in Netherlands, Italy, Germany, and France.
Pakistanis: approximately 1 million, mostly in the UK, but also in France, Spain, Germany, and Italy.
Bangladeshi residing in Europe estimated at over 500,000, mostly in the UK.
Sri Lankans: Portugal, the Netherlands and, the UK.
Nepalese: approximately 50,000 in the UK.
Afghans, about 100,000 to 200,000, most happen to live in the UK, but Germany and Sweden have also been popular destinations for Afghan immigrants since the 1960s.
Filipinos: above 1 million, mostly in Italy, the UK, France, Germany, and Spain.
Others of multiple nationalities, ca. total 1 million, such asIndonesians in theNetherlands,Thais in the UK, Germany, and Sweden,Vietnamese in France, former East Germany, Czechia, and to a lesser extent, Poland, the United Kingdom, and Russia, andCambodians in France, together with smaller communities ofBurmese,Malaysian,Singaporean,Timorese andLaotian migrants.
Koreans: 100,000 estimated (excluding a possible 100,000 more in theAsian section of Russia), mainly in the UK, France and Germany. See alsoKoryo-saram, although many Koryo-saram live inCentral Asian countries such as Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
Mongolians in Germany, and to a lesser extent, Czechia and the United Kingdom.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas, a scant few in the European continent of American Indian ancestry (often Latin Americans in Spain, France and the UK;Inuit inDenmark), but most may be children or grandchildren of U.S. soldiers from American Indian tribes by intermarriage with local European women.
Medieval notions of a relation of the peoples of Europe are expressed in terms ofgenealogy of mythical founders of the individual groups.The Europeans were considered the descendants ofJapheth from early times, corresponding to the division of the known world intothree continents, the descendants ofShem peoplingAsia and those ofHam peoplingAfrica. Identification of Europeans as "Japhetites" is also reflected in early suggestions for terming theIndo-European languages "Japhetic".
The first man that dwelt in Europe was Alanus, with his three sons, Hisicion, Armenon, and Neugio. Hisicion had four sons, Francus, Romanus, Alamanus, and Bruttus. Armenon had five sons, Gothus, Valagothus, Cibidus, Burgundus, and Longobardus. Neugio had three sons, Vandalus, Saxo, and Boganus.From Hisicion arose four nations—theFranks, theLatins, theGermans, andBritons; from Armenon, theGothi,Valagothi,Cibidi,Burgundi, andLongobardi; from Neugio, theBogari,Vandali,Saxones, andTarincgi. The whole of Europe was subdivided into these tribes.[72]
The text goes then on to list the genealogy of Alanus, connecting him to Japheth via eighteen generations.
European culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its "common cultural heritage".[73] Due to the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture.[74] Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe.[75] One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes:[76]
A specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guaranteeshuman rights and theliberty of the individual;[77]
A plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another;[77]
Respect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe.[77]
Berting says that these points fit with "Europe's most positive realisations".[78]The concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of theWestern world. In this definition, Western culture is the set ofliterary,scientific,political,artistic andphilosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in theWestern canon.[79] The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such asthe Americas, andAustralasia, and is not restricted to Europe.
Christianity has been the dominant religion shaping European culture for at least the last 1700 years.[82][83][84][85][86] Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus, and throughout most of its history, Europe has been nearly equivalent toChristian culture.[87] TheChristian culture was the predominant force inwestern civilization, guiding the course ofphilosophy,art, andscience.[88][89] The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unifiedEuropean identity.[90]
Christianity is still the largest religion in Europe; according to a 2011 survey, 76.2% of Europeans considered themselvesChristians.[91][92] Also according to a study on Religiosity in the European Union in 2012, byEurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in theEuropean Union, accounting for 72% of theEU's population.[93] As of 2010Catholics were the largestChristian group inEurope, accounting for more than 48% of European Christians. The second-largest Christian group in Europe were theOrthodox, who made up 32% of European Christians. About 19% of European Christians were part of theProtestant tradition.[94]Russia is the largest Christian country in Europe by population, followed byGermany andItaly.[94] According to Scholars, in 2017, Europe's population was 77.8% Christian (up from 74.9% 1970),[95][96] these changes were largely result of thecollapse of Communism andswitching to Christianity in the former Soviet Union andEastern Bloc countries.[95]
Islam has some tradition in theBalkans and theCaucasus due to conquest and colonization from theOttoman Empire in the 16th to 19th centuries, as well as earlier though discontinued long-term presence inmuch of Iberia as well asSicily.Muslims account for the majority of the populations inAlbania,Azerbaijan,Kosovo,Northern Cyprus (controlled byTurks), andBosnia and Herzegovina. Significant minorities are present in the rest of Europe. Russia also has one of the largestMuslim communities in Europe, including theTatars of theMiddle Volga and multiple groups in the Caucasus, includingChechens,Avars,Ingush and others. With 20th-century migrations,Muslims in Western Europe have become a noticeable minority. According to thePew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%),[97][98] while the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%).[99]
Judaism has a longhistory in Europe, but is a small minority religion, withFrance (1%) the only European country with a Jewish population in excess of 0.5%. The Jewish population of Europe is composed primarily of twogroups, theAshkenazi and theSephardi. Ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews likely migrated to Central Europeat least as early as the 8th century, while Sephardi Jews established themselvesin Spain and Portugal at least one thousand years before that. Jews originated in theLevant where they resided for thousands of years until the 2nd century AD, when they spread around the Mediterranean and into Europe, although small communities were known to exist in Greece as well as the Balkans since at least the 1st century BC. Jewish history was notably affected bythe Holocaust and emigration (includingAliyah, as well as emigration toAmerica) in the 20th century. The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of European population) or 10% of the world's Jewish population.[100] In the 21st century,France has the largestJewish population inEurope,[100][101] followed by the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia and Ukraine.[101]
Currently, distribution oftheism in Europe is very heterogeneous, with more than 95% in Poland, and less than 20% in the Czech Republic and Estonia. The 2005Eurobarometer poll[102] found that 52% of EU citizens believe in God. According to aPew Research Center Survey in 2012 theReligiously Unaffiliated (Atheists andAgnostics) make up about 18.2% of theEuropean population in 2010.[103] According to the same Survey the Religiously Unaffiliated make up the majority of the population in only two European countries: Czech Republic (76%) and Estonia (60%).[103]
"Pan-European identity" or "Europatriotism" is an emerging sense of personal identification with Europe, or theEuropean Union as a result of the gradual process ofEuropean integration taking place over the last quarter of the 20th century, and especially in the period after the end of theCold War, since the 1990s. The foundation of theOSCE following the 1990sParis Charter has facilitated this process on a political level during the 1990s and 2000s.
From the later 20th century, 'Europe' has come to be widely used as a synonym for theEuropean Union even though there are millions of people living on the European continent in non-EU member states. The prefixpan implies that the identity applies throughout Europe, and especially in an EU context, and 'pan-European' is often contrasted withnational identity.[104]
^abcThere is anongoing controversy in Moldova over whether Moldovans' self-identification constitute a subgroup of Romanians or a separate ethnic group.
^There is no legal or generally accepted definitions of who is of Norwegian ethnicity in Norway. 87% of population have at least one parent who is born in Norway.[citation needed]
^In Norway, there is no clear legal definition of who is Sami. Therefore, exact numbers are not possible.
^Total population of Yiddish estimated at 1.5 million as of 1991, of which c. 40% in Ukraine.Yiddish atEthnologue (18th ed., 2015)(subscription required),Eastern Yiddish atEthnologue (18th ed., 2015)(subscription required),Western Yiddish atEthnologue (18th ed., 2015)(subscription required)
^Karl Friedrich Vollgraff,Erster Versuch einer Begründung sowohl der allgemeinen Ethnologie durch die Anthropologie, wie auch der Staats und Rechts-philosophie durch die Ethnologie oder Nationalität der Völker (1851), p. 257.
^A. Kumar,Encyclopaedia of Teaching of Geography (2002), p. 74 ff.; the tripartite subdivision of "Caucasians" into Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean groups persisted among some scientists into the 1960s, notably in Carleton Coon's bookThe Origin of Races (1962).
^Official is attached to: Decree of the Russian Government Nr 255 "On the Unified Register of Indigenous Small-Numbered Peoples of the Russian Federation", 24 March 2000 (Постановление Правительства РФ от 24 марта 2000 г. N 255 "О Едином перечне коренных малочисленных народов Российской Федерации(in Russian))http://base.garant.ru/181870.htm
^Rogers, John; Nelson, Marie C. (2003). ""Lapps, Finns, Gypsies, Jews, and idiots"? Modernity and the use of statistical categories in Sweden".Annales de démographie historique.1 (105):61–79.doi:10.3917/adh.105.79.
^Bayram, Servet; Seels, Barbara (1997), "The Utilization of Instructional Technology in Turkey",Educational Technology Research and Development,45 (1),Springer: 112,doi:10.1007/BF02299617,S2CID62176630,There are about 10 million Turks living in the Balkan area of southeastern Europe and in western Europe at present.
^52% of Europeans say no to Turkey's EU membership,Aysor, 2010, retrieved7 November 2020,This is not all of a sudden, says expert at the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies, Boris Kharkovsky. "These days, up to 15 million Turks live in the EU countries...
^abThe Guardian (1 August 2011)."UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs". Retrieved1 August 2011.The Home Office says that there are about 150,000 Turkish nationals living in Britain at present, with about 500,000 people of Turkish origin living in the country altogether. But Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and France all have larger Turkish communities which are more likely to attract a new wave of legal migration.
^Sayıner, Arda (2018)."Ankara Historia".Daily Sabah.Having said that, a few thousand Swedish citizens currently live in Turkey and the number went up 60 percent in 2017. According to Hyden, Turkish hospitality played an important part behind this increase. She said around 150,000 Turkish citizens live in Sweden, which has a total population of 10 million.
^Dursun-Özkanca, Oya (2019),Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-alliance Opposition,Cambridge University Press, p. 40,ISBN978-1-108-48862-4,One-fifth of the Turkish population is estimated to have Balkan origins. Additionally, more than one million Turks live in Balkan countries, constituting a bridge between these countries and Turkey.
^В России проживает около миллиона иудеев [About 1 million Jews live in Russia].interfax-religion.ru (in Russian). 26 February 2015.Archived from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved11 June 2020.
^* "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament."
"The Jewish people as a whole, initially called Hebrews (ʿIvrim), were known as Israelites (Yisreʾelim) from the time of their entrance into the Holy Land to the end of the Babylonian Exile (538 BC)."
^Diamond, Jared (1993)."Who are the Jews?"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved8 November 2010. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19.
^"Archived copy".www.destatis.de. Archived fromthe original on 16 November 2010. Retrieved11 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^Ab Hisitione autem ortae sunt quattuor gentes Franci, Latini, Albani et Britti. ab Armenone autem quinque: Gothi, Valagothi, Gebidi, Burgundi, Longobardi. a Neguio vero quattuor Boguarii, Vandali, Saxones et Turingi. Nennius (1848) [8th century].Historia Brittonum. Translated by J. A. Giles. London: Henry G. Bohn.Archived 2009-07-27 at theWayback Machine.
^Cederman (2001:2) remarks: "Given the absence of an explicit legal definition and the plethora of competing identities, it is indeed hard to avoid the conclusion that Europe is an essentially contested concept." Cf. also Davies (1996:15); Berting (2006:51).
^K. Bochmann (1990)L'idée d'Europe jusqu'au XXè siècle, quoted in Berting (2006:52). Cf. Davies (1996:15): "No two lists of the main constituents of European civilization would ever coincide. But many items have always featured prominently: from the roots of the Christian world in Greece, Rome and Judaism to modern phenomena such as the Enlightenment, modernization, romanticism, nationalism, liberalism, imperialism, totalitarianism."
^Peter Beyer,Religions in Global Society, 2006, page 146
^Cambridge University Historical Series,An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p. 40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.
^Caltron J.H. Hayas,Christianity and Western Civilization (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization — the civilization of western Europe and of America— have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant.
^Horst Hutter, University of New York,Shaping the Future: Nietzsche's New Regime of the Soul And Its Ascetic Practices (2004), p. 111: three mighty founders of Western culture, namely Socrates, Jesus, and Plato.
^Fred Reinhard Dallmayr,Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices (2004), p. 22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization.
^Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961).Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). CUA Press. p. 108.ISBN978-0-8132-1683-6.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961).Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). CUA Press.ISBN978-0-8132-1683-6.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961).Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). CUA Press. p. 108.ISBN978-0-8132-1683-6.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^ab"Religiously Unaffiliated".Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 18 December 2012. Retrieved22 February 2015.
^This is particularly the case among proponents of the so-calledconfederalist orneo-functionalist position on European integration. Eder and Spohn (2005:3) note: "The evolutionary thesis of the making of a European identity often goes with the assumption of a simultaneous decline of national identities. This substitution thesis reiterates the well-known confederalist/neo-functionalist position in the debate on European integration, arguing for an increasing replacement of the nation-state by European institutions, against the intergovernmentalist/realist position, insisting on the continuing primacy of the nation-state."
Dow, R. R.; Bockhorn, O. (2004),The Study of European Ethnology in Austria, Progress in European Ethnology, Ashgate Publishing,ISBN978-0-7546-1747-1
Eberhardt, Piotr; Owsinski, Jan (2003),Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central Eastern Europe, M.E. Sharpe,ISBN978-0-7656-0665-5
Eder, Klaus; Spohn, Willfried (2005).Collective Memory and European Identity: The Effects of Integration and Enlargement. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company.ISBN978-0-7546-4401-9.
Hobsbawm, E. J.; Kertzer, David J. (1992), "Ethnicity and Nationalism in Europe Today",Anthropology Today,8 (1):3–8,doi:10.2307/3032805,JSTOR3032805
Minahan, James (2000),One Europe, many nations: a historical dictionary of European national groups, Greenwood Publishing Group,ISBN978-0-313-30984-7
Panikos Panayi,Outsiders: A History of European Minorities (London: Hambledon Press, 1999)
Olson, James Stuart; Pappas, Lee Brigance; Pappas, Nicholas Charles (1994),An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empire, Greenwood,ISBN978-0-313-27497-8
O'Néill, Diarmuid (2005),Rebuilding the Celtic languages: reversing language shift in the Celtic countries, Y Lolfa,ISBN978-0-86243-723-7
Panayi, Panikos (1999),An Ethnic History of Europe Since 1945: Nations, States and Minorities, Longman,ISBN978-0-582-38135-3
Parman, S., ed. (1998),Europe in the Anthropological Imagination, Prentice Hall
Stephens, John Sturge (2024), Hannes Obermair, Josef Prackwieser (ed.),Danger Zones. Eine Untersuchung zu nationalen Minderheiten in Europa, Edizioni Alphabeta Verlag,ISBN978-88-7223-428-0
Stephens, Meic (1976),Linguistic Minorities in Western Europe, Gomer Press,ISBN978-0-608-18759-4
^Pan, Christoph; Pfeil, Beate S. (2003). "The Peoples of Europe by Demographic Size, Table 1".National Minorities in Europe: Handbook. Wien: Braumueller. p. 11f.ISBN978-3-7003-1443-1. (a breakdown by country of these 87 groups is given in Table 5, pp. 17–31.)
Albania
Armenia[b]
Austria
Azerbaijan[d]
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
Georgia[d][112]
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Kazakhstan[d]
Kosovo[f]
Latvia
Lithuania
Malta
Moldova
Montenegro
Netherlands
North Macedonia
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia[d]
Serbia[j]
Slovakia
Slovenia
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey[d]
Ukraine
