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Vietnamese Kinh people account for 85.32% of the population ofVietnam in the2019 census, and are officially designated and recognized as theKinh people (người Kinh) to distinguish them from the otherminority groups residing in the country such as theHmong,Cham, orMường. The Vietnamese are one of the four main groups ofVietic speakers in Vietnam, the others being theMường,Thổ, andChứt people. Diasporic descendants of the Vietnamese in China, known as theGin people, are one of 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by thePeople's Republic of China, residing in theGuangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.
Terminology
According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such asViệt (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination),Kinh (related to medieval administrative designation), orKeeu andKæw (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam,Old Chinese*kraw) byKra-Dai speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the Austroasiatic-speaking ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronounta (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage,ta corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "nước ta" (our country) and "tiếng ta" (our language) in contrast to "nước tây" (western countries) and "tiếng tây" (western languages).[68]
Việt
The term "Việt" (Yue) (Chinese:越; pinyin:Yuè; Cantonese Yale:Yuht; Wade–Giles:Yüeh4; Vietnamese:Việt) inEarly Middle Chinese was first written using thelogograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), inoracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the lateShang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[69] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[70][71] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middleYangtze were called theYangyue, which was later used to describe peoples living further south.[70] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, Yue/Việt referred to theState of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[69][70] From the 3rd century BC, the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups calledMinyue,Ouyue (Vietnamese:Âu Việt), Luoyue (Vietnamese:Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called theBaiyue (Bách Việt,Chinese:百越; pinyin:Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale:Baak Yuet; Vietnamese:Bách Việt; lit. 'Hundred Yue/Viet'; ).[69][70] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the bookLüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[72][73] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves asngười Việt𠊛越 (Viet people) orngười Nam𠊛南 (southern people).[74]
Người Việt 𠊛越 (Vietnamese people) written here in the book, 大南國史演歌 Đại Nam quốc sử diễn ca
Kinh
Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Viet-Muong (northern Vietic language), with influence from a hypothetical Chinese dialect in northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, evolved into what is now theVietnamese language.[75][76][77] Its speakers called themselves the "Kinh" people, meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around theRed River Delta withHanoi as its capital. Historic and modern chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京', pronounced "Jīng" in Mandarin, and "Kinh" with Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation. Other variants of Proto-Viet-Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were calledTrại (寨 Mandarin:Zhài), or "outpost" people", by the 13th century. These became the modernMường people.[78] According to Victor Lieberman,người Kinh (Chữ Nôm: 𠊛京) may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents, but literature on 18th century ethnic formation is lacking.[74]
History
Origins and pre-history
According to the Vietnamese legend,The Tale of the Hồng Bàng Clan (Hồng Bàng thị truyện), written in the 15th century, the first Vietnamese were descended from thedragon lordLạc Long Quân and thefairyÂu Cơ. They married and had one hundred eggs, from which hatched one hundred children. Their eldest son ruled as theHùng king.[79] The Hùng kings were claimed to be descended from the mythical figureShen Nong.[80]
The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was theLạc (Chinese: Luo),Lạc Việt, or theDongsonian,[81] an ancient tribal confederacy of perhaps polyglotAustroasiatic andKra-Dai speakers who occupied theRed River Delta in northern Vietnam.[82][83]
One hypothesis suggests that the forerunners of the ethnic Kinh descend from asubset ofproto-Austroasiatic people in southern China, either aroundYunnan,Lingnan, or theYangtze River, as well as mainlandSoutheast Asia. These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged intoMonic speakers, who settled further to the west, and theKhmeric speakers, who migrated further south. TheMunda of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who likely diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Most archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice.[84][85][86][87]
Some linguists, such as James Chamberlain and Joachim Schliesinger, have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated northwards from theNorth Central Region of Vietnam to theRed River Delta, which had originally been inhabited byTaispeakers.[88][89][90][91] However, Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts inJiaozhi (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a fairly stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to modern Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during theHan-Tang periods.[92]
Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-dayBolikhamsai Province andKhammouane Province in Laos as well as in parts ofNghệ An Province andQuảng Bình Province in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region.[93]
Michael Churchman, Tuong Vu, and Frederic Pain argue that a distinct Vietnamese identity or language did not exist in full prior to and during the Han-Tang period. Churchman states that during this period, the tribes in northern Vietnam and southern China did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense.[97] Vu believes that a Han-Viet group existed that spoke both a Chinese dialect called "Annamese Middle Chinese" and Proto-Viet-Muong, but the inhabitants of the Red River Valley did not have a single identity or language.[98] Pain also argues that Vietnamese cultural identity was the result of Chinese influence on native elements that fully emerged in the post-Chinese rule period during theSong dynasty.[99] Thus, attempts to identify ethnic groups in ancient Vietnam are problematic and often inaccurate.[100]
Early history and Chinese rule
The Kinh Vietnamese have dual ancestry from Đông Sơn-related peoples and southern China, likeMường peoples.[101] Đông Sơn-related peoples are believed to be genetically and craniometrically discontinuous from the previousHoabinhian hunter-gatherers of northern Vietnam due to extensive admixture with East Asian populations.[102][103] Another study, however, suggests some affinities between present Kinh Vietnamese and hunter-gatherers from the Con Co Ngua site inThanh Hoa, Vietnam about 6.2 k cal BP, who were phenotypically closer to Late Pleistocene Southeast Asians and modernMelanesians andAboriginal Australians.[104] They also share the highest genetic drift with protohistoric Vat Komnou individuals, who have 37–44% South Asian ancestry, along with Khmers. However, this most likely reflects their ancestors contributing to the East Asian component of these individuals.[105]
The Đông Sơn culture was pioneered by the Lạc Việt peoples, who also founded theVăn Langchiefdom, ruled by the semi-mythicalHùng kings.[106] To the south of the Dongsonians/Lạc Việt was theSa Huỳnh culture of theAustronesianChamic people.[107] Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc Việt interacted with theÂu Việt, a splinter group ofTai people from southern China,[108] andSinitic peoples from further north.[109] According to a late-third- or early-fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle,Thục Phán, the leader of the Âu Việt, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the lastHùng king.[110] Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương ofÂu Lạc kingdom, uniting the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes.[106]
In 179 BC,Zhao Tuo, a Chinese general who established theNanyue state in modern-day southern China, annexed Âu Lạc, which initiated Sino-Vietic interaction that lasted for a millennium.[111] In 111 BC, theHan Empire conquered Nanyue, which also brought northern Vietnam under Han rule.[112]
By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as theTang Empire ruled over the region, historians such asHenri Maspero proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the Mường andChứt due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese.[113] In the mid-9th century, local rebels aided byNanzhao almost ended Tang rule.[114] The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, marking the separation between theMường and the Vietnamese.[113][115]
According to Jennifer Holmgren, the first six centuries of Chinese rule saw more Vietnamization of local Chinese than Sinicization of local Vietnamese.[116] Compared to the first six centuries of Chinese rule when demographics were relatively stable, Chinese migration during the Tang period was of sufficient magnitude to cause basic changes to certain portions of Vietnamese society in northern Vietnam. Most of these Chinese migrants came as soldiers or merchants, took a wife from the indigenous population, and settled down. They were individuals that settled down in a nuclear family, causing the average household size to decrease. Despite the increase of Chinese migrants to Vietnam, it was still much more constrained compared to Chinese migration to Guangdong and Guangxi due to the structure of Vietnamese society, which limited the ability of Chinese rulers to register and tax the local population. Vietnamese society retained their language and heritage. Other peoples like the Muong, Tay, and Nung people fled Chinese control into the uplands, where Chinese registers could not reach them. Non-Chinese foreign migration was also significant in the south due to pressures elsewhere such as the expanding Cham kingdom.[117] Around 10.5% of Kinh Vietnamese carry the Han ChineseO-M7haplogroup, suggesting heavy assimilation of Chinese migrants in northern Vietnam.[118]
In 938, the Vietnamese leaderNgô Quyền who was a native ofThanh Hóa, led Vietnamese forces to defeat the Chinese armada atBạch Đằng River. He proclaimed himself king over a polity that could be perceived as "Vietnamese".[119]
Medieval and early modern period
One of the traditional costumes of Vietnamese people
Ngô Quyền died in 944 and his kingdom collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs.[120] In 968, a leader namedĐinh Bộ Lĩnh united them and established the Đại Việt (Great Việt) kingdom.[121] With assistance of powerful Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh choseHoa Lư in the southern edge of theRed River Delta as the capital instead of Tang-eraĐại La, adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework.[122] The independence of Đại Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allows it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness".[123] In 979, EmperorĐinh Tiên Hoàng was assassinated, and QueenDương Vân Nga married Dinh's generalLê Hoàn and appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Đại Việt attracted attention from the neighbouring ChineseSong dynasty andChampa Kingdom, but they were defeated by Lê Hoàn.[124] AKhmer inscription dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) inAngkor.[125] Chinese writers Song Hao,Fan Chengda andZhou Qufei all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing".[126] The early 11th-centuryCham inscription of Chiên Đàn,My Son, erected by king of ChampaHarivarman IV (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to various local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon.[127] Many Kinh Vietnamese also lived in Champa and were well-assimilated, like other Austroasiatic groups living in the state.[128]
Successive Vietnamese royal families from the Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, Trần and Hồ dynasties, who hadHoa/Chinese ancestry, ruled the kingdom peacefully from 968 to 1407. EmperorLý Thái Tổ (r. 1009–1028) relocated the Vietnamese capital fromHoa Lư toĐại La, the center of theRed River Delta in 1010.[129] They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, with Cham, Indian and Chinese cultures influencing Vietnamese music instruments, dance and religious worship.[130] Confucianism also slowly gained attention and influence.[131] The earliest surviving corpus and text in theVietnamese language were dated to the early 12th century whilst survivingchữ Nôm script inscriptions were dated to the early 13th century, showcasing enormous influences of Chinese culture among the early Vietnamese elites.[132]
The MongolYuan dynasty unsuccessfully invaded Đại Việt in the 1250s and 1280s, though they sacked Hanoi.[133] TheMing dynasty of China conquered Đại Việt in 1406, brought the Vietnamese under Chinese rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by Vietnamese leaderLê Lợi.[134] The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, EmperorLê Thánh Tông (r. 1460–1497), is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Vietnamese history. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars. He also adopted Confucianism and transformed Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a bureaucratic state that flourished. Thánh Tông's forces, armed withgunpowder weapons, overwhelmed the long-term rivalChampa in 1471 and launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian andLan Na kingdoms in the 1480s.[135]
With the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, the Đại Việt kingdom swiftly declined. Extreme climate, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the Vietnamese apart.[136] From 1533 to 1790s, four powerful Vietnamese families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh and Nguyễn – each ruled their own domains. In the northern Vietnamese polity of Đàng Ngoài (outer realm), the Lê emperors barely sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc controlled northeast Vietnam. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm).[137] Thousands of ethnic Vietnamese migrated south and settled on the old Cham lands, with Cham inhabitants assimilating into the new Vietnamese state.[138][139] Vietnamese also settled in thehighlands of Vietnam and intermixed with the natives over centuries.[139] European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651,Alexandre de Rhodes published a 300-pagescatechism inLatin and romanized-Vietnamese (chữ Quốc Ngữ) or theVietnamese alphabet.[140]
Conflict among Vietnamese ended in 1802 as EmperorGia Long, who was aided by French mercenaries, defeated theTay Son kingdoms and reunited Vietnam. By 1847, the Vietnamese state under EmperorThiệu Trị, a people that were identified as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's population.[141] This demographic model continues to persist through theFrench Indochina,Japanese occupation and modern day.
Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became theFrench colony of Cochinchina.[142] By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates ofAnnam andTonkin. The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union ofFrench Indochina in 1887.[143][144] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[145] A Western-style system of modern education introduced newhumanist values into Vietnam.[146]
Vietnamese soldiers in 1972
Despite having a long recorded ethnic history, the formation of the ethnic Vietnamese or Kinh identity, only begun by the late 19th and early 20th century, with the help of the colonial administration. Following the colonial government's efforts of ethnic classification, nationalism, especiallyethnonationalism and eugenicsocial Darwinism, were encouraged among the new Vietnamese intelligentsia's discourse. Ethnic tensions sparked by Vietnamese ethnonationalism peaked during the late 1940s at the beginning phase of theFirst Indochina War (1946–1954), which resulted in violence between Khmer and Vietnamese in theMekong Delta.
The mid-20th century marked a pivotal turning point with theVietnam War, a conflict that not only left an indelible impact on the nation but also had far-reaching consequences for the Vietnamese people. The war, which lasted from 1955 to 1975, resulted in significant social, economic, and political upheavals, shaping the modern history of Vietnam and its people. Following theend of the Vietnam War in 1975, the post-war era brought economic hardships and strained social dynamics, prompting resilient efforts at reconstruction, reconciliation, and the implementation of economic reforms such as theĐổi Mới policies in the late 20th century.
Genetics
Several studies show close genetic affinities between the Kinh Vietnamese and Thais[147][148][149][150][151] orTai-Kadai peoples,[152][153][154][155][151] especiallyDai people.[156][157][158][159] Like Tai-Kadai groups from mainland China, the Kinh possess 'genetic characteristics of theBaiyue lineage'. There's also evidence that the Kinh diverged from theHlai, who have the most enriched Baiyue ancestry among Tai-Kadai groups, much earlier than theDai diverged from Hlai.[160]
Overall, the Kinh received genetic contributions fromSouthern Han Chinese but also received minor genetic contributions fromLaotians,Malays (i.e.Proto-Malay,Negrito, andBidayut) and Thais (i.e.Mlabri andH'tin). Gene flow between Khmers and Kinh is undirectional with more evidence of Kinh contributing to the Khmer genome than vice versa.[161][162][163] Likewise, there is no evidence ofChams contributing to the Kinh genome from theNam Tiến conquests.[161]However, intermarriages between well-assimilated Kinh and Chams in the preceding Champa kingdom led to the sharing of mtDNA haplotypes between present Kinh and Chams.[128]
The majority of the Vietnamese belong to maternal haplogroups M (39%) and N (61%). In particular, M's subhaplogroup ofHaplogroup D (22%) and M7 (20%) and N's subhaplogroups of R9'F (27%) andHaplogroup B (25%) are common. In northern Vietnam, haplogroups, A, B4, F1a and G are common.[164]Haplogroups A and C are particularly common in northwest Vietnam, with haplogroups M and M7 peaking in northeast Vietnam and settlements near theGulf of Tonkin. Haplogroup M71 also peaks in central Vietnam. In contrast, haplogroups M and M7 are quite rare for northwest Vietnam and far south Vietnam, near the Mekong Delta.[161][164] In southern Vietnam, haplogroups D (9%) and N peak (67%) and to an extent, R9'F (29%). R9'F is instead more common in the Red River Delta (32-36%), followed by central (21%) and northwest Vietnam (16%).[161]
Meanwhile, common paternal haplogroups for Vietnamese are O1a1a2,[165] O1b1a1a[160] and N4-F2930.[166]
It is worth noting here that the data is highly skewed, as a large majority of Vietnamese may be unaffiliated with any religion, yet practice forms of traditional folk religion or Mahayana Buddhism.[167] Vietnamese folk religion is not an organized religious system, but a set of local worship traditions devoted to the "thần", a term which can be translated as "spirits", "Gods" or with the more exhaustive locution "generative powers". These Gods can benature deities ornational, community or kinshiptutelary deities or ancestral Gods and theancestral Gods of a specific family. Ancestral Gods are often deified heroic persons.Vietnamese mythology preserves narratives telling of the actions of many of the cosmic Gods and cultural heroes.[168]
Estimates for the year 2010 published by the Pew–Templeton Global Religious Futures Project:[169][unreliable source?]
Map of the countries with a significant Vietnamese population
Originally from northern Vietnam and southern China, the Vietnamese have expanded south and conquered much of the land belonging to the formerChampa Kingdom andKhmer Empire over the centuries. They are the dominant ethnic group in most provinces of Vietnam, and constitute a small percentage of the population in neighbouringCambodia. According to a 2020 study, Kinh Vietnamese mostly reside in the lowlands of Vietnam.[152]
Beginning around the sixteenth century, groups of Vietnamese migrated to Cambodia and China for commerce and political purposes. Descendants of Vietnamese migrants in China form theGin ethnic group in the country and primarily reside in and aroundGuangxi Province. Vietnamese form the largest ethnic minority group in Cambodia, at 5% of the population.[170] Under theKhmer Rouge, they were heavily persecuted and survivors of the regime largely fled to Vietnam.
DuringFrench colonialism, Vietnam was regarded as the most important colony in Asia by the French colonial powers, and the Vietnamese had a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in French Indochina.[171] As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers, especially duringWorld War I andWorld War II, when France recruited soldiers and locals of its colonies to help with war efforts in metropolitan France. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of the Vietnamese in France and the Western world.[172]
Congregation of the Mother Coredemptrix in Carthage, Missouri
When Vietnam gained its independence from France in 1954, a number of Vietnamese loyal to the colonial government also migrated to France. During the partition of Vietnam intoNorth andSouth, a number of South Vietnamese students also arrived to study in France, along with individuals involved in commerce for trade with France, which was a principal economic partner with South Vietnam.[172]
Ethnolinguistic groups of Mainland Southeast Asia
Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during theKhmer Rouge era reduced theVietnamese population inCambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984.[173]
Thefall of Saigon and end of theVietnam War prompted the start of the Vietnamese diaspora, which saw millions of Vietnamese fleeing the country from the new communist regime. Recognizing an international humanitarian crisis, many countries accepted Vietnameserefugees, primarily the United States, France, Australia and Canada.[174] Meanwhile, under the new communist regime, tens of thousands of Vietnamese were sent to work or study inEastern Bloc countries ofCentral andEastern Europe as development aid to the Vietnamese government and for migrants to acquire skills that were to be brought home to help with development.[175]
^The number of Vietnamese nationals currently in Taiwan with a valid residence permit was 259,375 as of 30 April 2024 (155,147 males, 104,228 females). The number of Vietnamese nationals with a valid residence permit in Taiwan (including those currently not in Taiwan) was 295,051 as of 30 April 2024 (174,108 males, 120,943 females).[8] The number of foreign spouses of Vietnamese origin in Taiwan was 111,529 as of April 2022 (2,383 males, 109,146 females).[9] According to theTaiwanese Ministry of the Interior, between 1993 and 2021, 94,015 Vietnamese nationals became naturalized citizens in the Republic of China.[10] It was also estimated that 70% ofVietnamese brides in Taiwan had obtained Taiwanese nationality as of 2014,[11] with many renouncing Vietnamese citizenship in the process of naturalization, in accordance withTaiwanese law.[12] An estimated 200,000 children were born to Vietnamese mothers and Taiwanese fathers, according to a report byVoice of Vietnam in 2014.[13] According toTaiwanese Ministry of Education, in 2021, 105,237 children born to foreign spouses of Vietnamese origin were enrolled in educational institutions across Taiwan (4,601 in kindergartens, 23,719 in primary schools, 17,904 in secondary schools, 31,497 in high schools, and 27,516 in universities/colleges),[14] a decrease of nearly 3,000 students compared to the previous year, which recorded a total of 108,037 students (5,168 in kindergartens, 25,752 in primary schools, 22,462 in secondary schools, 33,430 in high schools, and 21,225 in universities/colleges).[15]
^According to a report released by theMinistry of the Interior and Safety, as of 2022, there were 209,373 Vietnamese nationals in South Korea (those without Korean nationality), including 41,555 foreign workers; 36,362 marriage immigrants; 68,181 international students and 63,274 people classified as "Others". Additionally, the report revealed that 50,660 Vietnamese individuals had acquired Korean nationality, and there were also 103,295 children born to parents of Vietnamese origin in South Korea.[19]
^This data only included Vietnamese Nationals in Mainland China, ExcludingGin people and data inHong Kong, Macau andTaiwan.
^this data only includedGin people in Mainland China.
^外僑居留人數統計表11209 [Statistical Table for the Number of Foreign Residents as of April 2024].National Immigration Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan). 30 April 2024.Archived from the original on 14 June 2024. Retrieved14 June 2024.
^統計資料 [Statistics].National Immigration Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2022.Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved27 May 2022.
^L. Anh Hoang; Cheryll Alipio (2019).Money and Moralities in Contemporary Asia. Amsterdam University Press. p. 64.ISBN978-90-485-4315-1.It is estimated that there are up to 150,000 Vietnamese migrants in Russia, but the vast majority of them are undocumented.
^Dlhopolec, Peter (3 March 2022)."The Vietnamese campaign for their rights: "We belong here"".The Slovak Spectator.Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved27 May 2022.The 2021 data published by the Foreigners' Police reveals that 7,235 people from Vietnam have permanent or temporary residence in the country.
^Theobald, Ulrich (2018)."Shang Dynasty – Political History".ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art.Enemies of the Shang state were called fang 方 "regions", like the Tufang 土方, which roamed the northern region of Shanxi, theGuifang 鬼方 and Gongfang 𢀛方 in the northwest, theQiangfang 羌方, Suifang 繐方,Yuefang 戉方, Xuanfang 亘方 andZhoufang 周方 in the west, as well as theYifang 夷方 and Renfang 人方 in the southeast.
^The Annals of Lü Buwei. Translated by Knoblock, John; Riegel, Jeffrey. Stanford University Press. 2000. p. 510.ISBN978-0-8047-3354-0.For the most part, there are no rulers to the south of the Yang and Han Rivers, in the confederation of the Hundred Yue tribes.
^Lüshi Chunqiu "Examination on Relying on Rulers""Relying on Rulers" text: "揚、漢之南，百越之際，敝凱諸、夫風、餘靡之地，縛婁、陽禺、驩兜之國，多無君" translation: South of theYang andHan rivers, among theHundred Yuè, the lands of Bikaizhu, Fufeng, Yumi, the nations of Fulou, Yang'ou, Huandou, most had no rulers"
^Kelley, Liam C.; Hong, Hai Dinh (2021), "Competing Imagined Ancestries: The Lạc Việt, the Vietnamese, and the Zhuang", in Gillen, Jamie; Kelley, Liam C.; Le, Ha Pahn (eds.),Vietnam at the Vanguard: New Perspectives Across Time, Space, and Community, Springer Singapore, pp. 88–107,ISBN978-9-81165-055-0
^Sidwell, Paul. 2015b.Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic. Paper presented at the workshopIntegrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia, 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
^Sagart, Laurent (2008). "The expansion of setaria farmers in East Asia: a linguistic and archaeological model". In Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie (eds.).Past Human Migrations in East Asia. pp. 133–157.doi:10.4324/9780203926789.ISBN978-1-134-14963-6.HALhal-04864187.The cradle of the Vietic branch of Austroasiatic is very likely in north Vietnam, at least 1000km to the south‑west of coastal Fújiàn
^Ferlus, Michael (2009). "A Layer of Dongsonian Vocabulary in Vietnamese".Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society.1:95–108.HALhalshs-00932218v3.
^Oxenham, Marc F.; Matsumura, Hirofumi; Dung, Nguyen Kim (2010). "Man Bac: The Excavation of a Neolithic Site in Northern Vietnam".ANU Press.33:21–32.JSTORj.ctt24hcpx.8.
^Enfield, N. J. (2011).Dynamics of Human Diversity. Pacific Linguistics. pp. 153–178.ISBN978-0-85883-638-9.
^Kiernan 2019, pp. 127, 131 [Quote (p.131): From the tenth century, Vietnamese history comes into its own. After millennia of undocumented prehistory and a thousand years of imperial rule documented only in Chinese, new indigenous historical sources throw increasing light on political, economic, and cultural developments in the territory that had comprised the Protectorate of Annam. How new were these developments? A tenth-century ruler revived for a second time the ancient name of the kingdom of Nán Yuè in its Vietnamese form, Nam Việt. But this new kingdom would then adopt a new name, Đại Việt (Great Việt), and unlike its classical Yuè predecessors and short-lived tenth-century counterparts in south China, it successfully resisted reintegration into the empire. The new autonomous Việt realm inherited both the Sino-Vietnamese hereditary aristocracy and the provincial geography of Tang Annam. From north to south, it was a diverse region of five provinces and border marches. Restive ethnic Tai and other upland groups, formerly allied to the defunct Nanzhao kingdom, straddled the mountainous northern frontier. Lowland Jiao province in the central plain of the Red and Bạch Đằng rivers was the most Sinicized region, home to most of the northern settlers and traders and an influential Sino-Vietnamese Buddhist community, as well as Vietic-speaking rice farmers. Here the Vietnamese language was emerging as settlers adopted the Proto-Việt-Mường tongue of their indigenous neighbors, infusing it with much of their Annamese Middle Chinese vocabulary].
^Golzio, Karl-Heinz (2004),Inscriptions of Campā based on the editions and translations of Abel Bergaigne, Étienne Aymonier, Louis Finot, Édouard Huber and other French scholars and of the work of R. C. Majumdar. Newly presented, with minor corrections of texts and translations, together with calculations of given dates, Shaker Verlag, pp. 163–164,Original Old Cam text: ...(pa)kā ra vuḥkmīrayvan· si mak· nan· di yām̃ hajai tralauṅ· svon· dadam̃n· sthāna tra ra vuḥ urām̃ dinan· pajem̃ karadā yam̃ di nagara campa.
^Vu-Trieu, A.; Djoulah, S.; Tran-Thi, C.; Ngyuyen-Thanh, T.; Le Monnier De Gouville, I.; Hors, J.; Sanchez-Mazas, A. (October 1997). "HLA-DR and -DQB1 DNA polymorphisms in a Vietnamese Kinh population from Hanoi".European Journal of Immunogenetics.24 (5):345–356.doi:10.1046/j.1365-2370.1997.d01-107.x.PMID9442802.
^abNguyen, Nam Ngoc; Hoang, Trong Luc; Nguyen, Trang Hong; Le, Phuong Thi; Nguyen, Chi Hung; Tran, Viet Vinh; Chu, Hoang Ha; Hoang, Ha (17 November 2022). "The mitochondrial DNA HVI and HVII sequences and haplogroup distribution in a population sample from Vietnam".Annals of Human Biology.49 (7–8):367–371.doi:10.1080/03014460.2022.2152488.PMID36437685.
^Wang, Mengge; Huang, Yuguo; Liu, Kaijun; Wang, Zhiyong; Zhang, Menghan; Yuan, Haibing; Duan, Shuhan; Wei, Lanhai; Yao, Hongbing; Sun, Qiuxia; Zhong, Jie; Tang, Renkuan; Chen, Jing; Sun, Yuntao; Li, Xiangping; Su, Haoran; Yang, Qingxin; Hu, Liping; Yun, Libing; Yang, Junbao; Nie, Shengjie; Cai, Yan; Yan, Jiangwei; Zhou, Kun; Wang, Chuanchao; He, Guanglin; Liu, Chao; Wang, Mengge; Tang, Renkuan; Yun, Libing; Yang, Junbao; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Yan, Jiangwei; Zhu, Bofeng; Hu, Liping; Nie, Shengjie; Yao, Hongbing; Zhu, Bofeng; Liu, Chao; He, Guanglin (3 July 2024)."Multiple Human Population Movements and Cultural Dispersal Events Shaped the Landscape of Chinese Paternal Heritage".Molecular Biology and Evolution.41 (7) msae122.doi:10.1093/molbev/msae122.PMC11232699.PMID38885310.
^Ilumäe, Anne-Mai; Reidla, Maere; Chukhryaeva, Marina; Järve, Mari; Post, Helen; Karmin, Monika; Saag, Lauri; Agdzhoyan, Anastasiya; Kushniarevich, Alena; Litvinov, Sergey; Ekomasova, Natalya; Tambets, Kristiina; Metspalu, Ene; Khusainova, Rita; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Khusnutdinova, Elza K.; Osipova, Ludmila P.; Fedorova, Sardana; Utevska, Olga; Koshel, Sergey; Balanovska, Elena; Behar, Doron M.; Balanovsky, Oleg; Kivisild, Toomas; Underhill, Peter A.; Villems, Richard; Rootsi, Siiri (July 2016)."Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup N: A Non-trivial Time-Resolved Phylogeography that Cuts across Language Families".The American Journal of Human Genetics.99 (1):163–173.doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.05.025.PMC5005449.PMID27392075.
^Hong Van, Vu (2020). From Religious Heritage to Cultural Heritage: Study the Heritage of Buddhism in Vietnam (Preprint).doi:10.20944/preprints202003.0092.v1.
^Hillmann 2005, p. 87 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHillmann2005 (help)
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