Tewahedo (Ge'ez:ተዋሕዶtäwaḥədo) is aGeʽez word meaning "united as one." This word refers to the Oriental Orthodox belief inMiaphysitism, meaning one perfectly unified nature of Christ; i.e., a complete union of the divine and human natures into one nature is self-evident to accomplish the divine salvation of mankind, as opposed to the "two natures of Christ" belief commonly held by theLatin andEastern Catholic,Eastern Orthodox,Anglican,Lutheran, and most otherProtestant churches. The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to a miaphysite Christological view followed byCyril of Alexandria, the leading protagonist in the Christological debates of the 4th and 5th centuries, who advocated "mia physis tou Theou logou sesarkōmenē", or "one (mia) nature of the Word of God incarnate" (μία φύσις τοῦ θεοῦ λόγου σεσαρκωμένη) and ahypostatic union (ἕνωσις καθ' ὑπόστασιν,henōsis kath' hypostasin).[11][12] The distinction of this stance was that the incarnate Christ has one nature, but that one nature is of the two natures, divine and human, and retains all the characteristics of both after the union.
Tewahedo (Ge'ez:ተዋሕዶtäwaḥədo) is a Geʽez word meaning "being made one" or "unified" (see also the Arabic wordTawhid). This word refers to theOriental Orthodox belief in the one composite unifiednature of Christ; i.e., a belief that a complete, natural union of the divine and human natures into one is self-evident to accomplish the divine salvation of humankind. This is in contrast to the "two natures of Christ" belief (unmixed, but unseparated divine and human natures, called thehypostatic union) which is held by theCatholic Church and theEastern Orthodox Church.
The Oriental Orthodox Churches are known as "non-Chalcedonian", and, sometimes by outsiders as "monophysite" (meaning "One Single Nature", in allusion to Jesus Christ). However, these churches themselves describe their Christology asmiaphysite,[15][16] meaning "one united nature" about Jesus (the Greek equivalent of "Tewahedo").
John Chrysostom speaks of the "Ethiopians present in Jerusalem" as being able to understand the preaching ofSaint Peter described inActs 2:38.[17] Possible missions of some of theApostles in the lands now calledEthiopia are also reported as early as the 4th century.Socrates of Constantinople includes Ethiopia in his list as one of the regions preached byMatthew the Apostle,[18] where a specific mention of "Ethiopia south of the Caspian Sea" can be confirmed in some traditions such as theRoman Catholic Church among others.[19] Ethiopian Church tradition tells thatBartholomew accompanied Matthew in a mission which lasted for at least three months. These missions are depicted in paintings by Francesco Trevisan (1650–1740) andMarco Benefial (1688–1764) in theChurch of St. Matthew in Pisa.[17]
Then the angel of the Lord said to Philip, Start out and go south to the road that leads down from Jerusalem to Gaza. So he set out and was on his way when he caught sight of anEthiopian. This man was a eunuch, a high official of theKandake (Candace) Queen of Ethiopia in charge of all her treasure. (Acts, 8:26–27)
The passage continues by describing how Philip helped the Ethiopian treasurer understand a passage from theBook of Isaiah that the Ethiopian was reading. After Philip interpreted the passage as prophecy referring toJesus Christ, the Ethiopian requested that Philip baptize him, and Philip did so. TheEthiopic version of this verse reads "Hendeke" (ህንደኬ); Queen Gersamot Hendeke VII was the Queen of Ethiopia from c. 42 to 52. Where the possibility of gospel missions by theEthiopian eunuch cannot be directly inferred from the Books of the New Testament,Irenaeus of Lyons around 180 AD writes that "Simon Backos" preached the good news in his homeland outlining also the theme of his preaching as being the coming in flesh of God that "was preached to you all before."[20] The same kind of witness is shared by 3rd and 4th century writers such asEusebius of Caesarea[21] andOrigen of Alexandria.[17]
Coin of KingEzana, under whom Early Christianity became the established church of theKingdom of Aksum
Early Christianity became theestablished church of the EthiopianAxumite Kingdom under kingEzana in the 4th century when priesthood and the sacraments were brought for the first time through a Syrian Greek namedFrumentius, known by the local population in Ethiopia as "Selama, Kesaté Birhan" ("Father of Peace, Revealer of Light"). As a youth, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on theEritrean coast. The brothers managed to be brought to the royal court, where they rose to positions of influence and baptizedEmperor Ezana. Frumentius is also believed to have established the first monastery in Ethiopia, namedDabba Selama after him. In 2016, archaeologists excavated a 4th-century AD basilica (radio-carbon dated) in northeastern Ethiopia at a site calledBeta Samati. This is the earliest known physical evidence of a church in sub-Saharan Africa.[7]
Union with the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria continued after the Arab conquest ofEgypt. Abu Saleh records in the 12th century that the patriarch sent letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) andNubia, untilAl Hakim stopped the practice.Cyril, 67th patriarch, sentSeverus as bishop, with orders to put downpolygamy and to enforce the observance of canonical consecration for all churches. These examples show the close relations of the two churches throughout theMiddle Ages.[22] In 1439, in the reign ofZara Yaqob, a religious discussion betweenGiyorgis and a French visitor led to the dispatch of an embassy from Ethiopia to theVatican.[22][23]
The period ofJesuit influence, which broke the connection with Egypt, began a new chapter in church history. The initiative inRoman Catholic missions to Ethiopia was taken not byRome, but byPortugal, in the course of a conflict with theMuslimOttoman Empire and theSultanate of Adal for the command of the trade route toIndia via theRed Sea.[37]
In 1507,Mateus, or Matthew, anArmenian, had been sent as an Ethiopian envoy to Portugal. In 1520, an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de Lima landed in Ethiopia. An account of the Portuguese mission, which lasted for several years, was written byFrancisco Álvares, its chaplain.[38]
Later,Ignatius Loyola wished to take up the task of conversion, but was forbidden to do so. Instead, thepope sent out João Nunes Barreto as patriarch of the East Indies, withAndrés de Oviedo as bishop; and fromGoa envoys went to Ethiopia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the king's adherence to Rome. After repeated failures some measure of success was achieved under EmperorSusenyos I, but not until 1624 did the Emperor make formal submission to thepope.[38] Susenyos made Roman Catholicism the official state religion but was met with heavy resistance by his subjects and by the authorities of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and eventually had to abdicate in 1632 in favour of his son,Fasilides, who promptly restored Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity as the state religion. He then in 1633 expelled the Jesuits, and in 1665 Fasilides ordered that all Jesuit books (the Books of the Franks) be burned.[citation needed]
Icon ofSamuel of Waldebba, a 15th-century Ethiopian monk and ascetic of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
David Daniels has suggested that the Ethiopian Church has had a stronger impact on the Reformation than most scholars acknowledge. ForMartin Luther, who spearheaded theReformation, Daniels says "the Ethiopian Church conferred legitimacy on Luther's emerging Protestant vision of a church outside the authority of the Roman Catholic papacy" as it was "an ancient church with direct ties to the apostles".[39] According to Daniels, Martin Luther saw that the Ethiopian Orthodox Church practiced elements of faith including "communion under both kinds, vernacular Scriptures, and married clergy" and these practices became customary in theLutheran churches. The Ethiopian church also rejectedpapal supremacy,purgatory andindulgences, which the Lutherans disagreed with, and thus for Luther, the Ethiopian church was the "trueforerunner of Protestantism".[39] Luther believed that the Ethiopian church kept true apostolic practices which the Lutherans would adopt through reading the scriptures.[40]
In 1534, a cleric of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church,Michael the Deacon, met with Martin Luther and affirmed theAugsburg Confession, saying "This is a good creed, that is, faith".[41][39] In addition, Martin Luther stated that theLutheran Mass agreed with that used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.[39] As a result, Luther invited the Ethiopian church and Michael to full fellowship.[39][42]
Engraving ofAbuna Salama III, head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (1841–1867)
In modern times, the Ethiopian Church has experienced a series of developments. The 19th century witnessed the publication of an Amharic translation of the Bible. Largely the work ofAbu Rumi over ten years in Cairo, this version, with some changes, held sway until EmperorHaile Selassie ordered a new translation which appeared in 1960/1.[43] Haile Selassie also played a prominent role in further reforms of the church, which included encouraging the distribution of Abu Rumi's translation throughout Ethiopia,[44] as well as his promotion of improved education of clergy, a significant step in the Emperor's effort being the founding of the Theological College of the Holy Trinity Church in December 1944.[45] A third development came after Haile Selassie's restoration to Ethiopia, when he issued, on 30 November, Decree Number 2 of 1942, a new law reforming the church. The primary objectives of this decree were to put the finances of the church in order, to create a central fund for its activities, and to set forth requirements for the appointment of clergy—which had been fairly lax until then.[46]
The Coptic and Ethiopian churches reached an agreement on 13 July 1948, that led toautocephaly for the Ethiopian Church. Fivebishops were immediately consecrated by the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa, empowered to elect a new patriarch for their church, and the successor to Qerellos IV would have the power to consecrate new bishops.[47] This promotion was completed when Coptic OrthodoxPope Joseph II consecrated an Ethiopian-born Archbishop,Abuna Basilios, 14 January 1951. Then in 1959,Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria crowned Basilios as the first Patriarch of Ethiopia.
Basilios died in 1970, and was succeeded that year byTewophilos. With the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was disestablished as thestate church. The new Marxist government began nationalizing property (including land) owned by the church. Tewophilos was arrested in 1976 by theMarxistDergmilitary junta, and secretly executed in 1979. The government ordered the church to elect a new Patriarch, andTakla Haymanot was enthroned. The Coptic Orthodox Church refused to recognize the election and enthronement of Tekle Haymanot on the grounds that theSynod of the Ethiopian Church had not removed Tewophilos and that the government had not publicly acknowledged his death, and he was thus still the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Formal relations between the two churches were halted, although they remained in communion with each other. Formal relations between the two churches resumed on July 13, 2007.[48]
Tekla Haymanot proved to be much less accommodating to the Derg regime than it had expected, so when the patriarch died in 1988, a new patriarch with closer ties to the regime was sought. The Archbishop ofGondar, a member of the Derg-era Ethiopian Parliament, was elected and enthroned asAbuna Merkorios. Following the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, and the coming to power of theEPRDF government, Merkorios abdicated under public pressure. The church then elected a new Patriarch,Paulos, in 1992 who was recognized by the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria. The former Merkorios then fled abroad, and announced from exile that his abdication had been made under duress and thus he was still the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Several bishops also went into exile and formed a break-away alternate synod.[49] TheEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church was grantedautocephaly from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church on 28 September 1993 following ratification by Coptic church PatriarchShenouda III, but the two remain in full communion. This split drew criticism from those that saw it as a disintegration of Ethiopia's spiritual heritage.[50]
There are many Ethiopian Orthodox churches located throughout the United States and other countries to which Ethiopians have migrated (Archbishop Yesehaq 1997).
Patriarch Paulos died on 16 August 2012. On 28 February 2013, a college of electors assembled in Addis Ababa and electedMathias to be the 6th Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.[51]
On 25 July 2018, delegates from the Patriarchate in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and those in the United States, declared reunification inWashington, D.C. Declaring the end of a 26-year-old schism, the church announced that it acknowledges two Patriarchs, Merkorios, Fourth Patriarch of Ethiopia and Mathias I, Sixth Patriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Archbishop of Axum and Ichege of the See of Saint Taklehaimanot.[52] After the reunification of the church fathersAbune Merkorios, the fourth Patriarch of Ethiopia died on 3 March 2022.[53]
On 7 May 2021, a group ofTigrayan priests and bishops announced the secession of the regional clergy from the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOTC) to establish theTigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church (TOTC). The split was driven by grievances over the EOTC holysynod’s perceived alignment with thefederal government during theTigray War (2020–2022), which many Tigrayans accused of legitimizing state violence and remaining silent over atrocities committed against civilians.[54][55][56] The move was also justified by the extensive destruction of churches and monasteries inTigray during the conflict, often at the hands ofEritrean troops allied with theEthiopian army.[57][58][59][60] Massacres of civilians aroundAxum’sChurch of Our Lady Mary of Zion, bombings of sites such as the 6th-centuryDebre Damo monastery, and the widespread pillage of sacred objects—including manuscripts, icons, and golden crosses—were documented by international human rights groups.[61][62][63][64][65] Many stolen treasures were reportedly transported intoEritrea, reinforcing accusations that the war was accompanied by cultural erasure.[66]
Significantly, PatriarchAbune Mathias, the current Patriarch who is himself aTigrayan, broke ranks with the Holy Synod by publicly denouncing the conflict as a “genocide” againstTigrayans, lamenting that his attempts to issue statements had been censored by church authorities inAddis Ababa.[67][68] For theTigrayan clergy, the silence—or in some cases, the complicity—of the Synod in the face of massacres, looting, and the destruction of holy sites contrasted sharply with the Patriarch’s testimony, further underscoring the need for an autonomous church that could defend the religious and cultural heritage of theTigrayan people.[55]
On 22 January 2023, an attempt to overthrow Abune Mathias was failed following a secret formation of new 26-made bishop Synod led by Abune Sawiros in Oromia Region diocese, such as in Haro Beale Wold Church inWoliso, and nine bishops of diocese outside the region. The Patriarchate called it an "illegal appointment", where Abune Mathias decried it as "great event that has targeted the church".[69][70]After not apologising for the illegal ordination, three Archbishops were excommunicated by the Holy Synod on 26 January.[71] On 31 January 2023, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed convened a discussion surrounding the incident where he responded that he was ready to resolve the conflict. The speech led backlash from the Holy Synod and accused his government of meddling in the Church in reference toseparation of church and state in the Article 11 of theFDRE Constitution.[72][73]
On 4 February, three people were reportedly killed inShashemene by theOromia Special Forces. According Tewahedo Media Center (TMC), two Orthodox youth were killed and four others were injured by the Oromo Special Forces. Abune Henok, Archbishop of Addis Ababa Diocese described it as "shameful and heart-wrenching".[74] In response to grievance, numerous celebrities expressed their solidarity to the Church via social media and other platforms and donned black clothing during three-daysFast of Nineveh.[75][76] On 9 February, the government imposed restrictions on social sites targeted toFacebook,Messenger,Telegram andTikTok.[77][78] On the next day, the delegation of Synod held an urgent meeting with Abiy at his office, which resulted in condemnation of the proclaimed Oromia Synod from Abiy.[79] On 12 February, a nationwide protest was postponed.Abune Petros, the Secretary of the Holy Synod announced that the demonstration would be postponed following peaceful talks with the Prime Minister and a government agreement to solve the problem.[80] On 15 February, the Church reached an agreement with the illegally ordinated synod.[81] The government lifted the internet ban after five months on 17 July.[82]
InsideDebre Sema'it village rock churchPriests and deacons conducting a church liturgy service at Debre Meheret Kidus Michael Ethiopian Orthodox Cathedral, Washington, DC, US
The faith and practice of Orthodox Ethiopian Christians include elements fromMiaphysite Christianity as it has developed in Ethiopia over the centuries. Christian beliefs include belief in God (in Geʽez / Amharic,′Egziabeher, lit. "Lord of the Universe"),veneration of the Virgin Mary, the angels, and the saints, besides others. According to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church itself, there are no non-Christian elements in the religion other than those from theOld Testament, orHəggä 'Orät (ሕገ ኦሪት),[citation needed] to which are added those from theNew Testament, orHəggä Wongel (ሕገ ወንጌል).[83] A hierarchy ofK'ədusan ቅዱሳን[citation needed] (angelic messengers and saints) conveys the prayers of the faithful to God and carries out the divine will, so when an Ethiopian Christian is in difficulty, he or she appeals to them as well as to God. In more formal and regular rituals, priests communicate on behalf of the community, and only priests may enter the inner sanctum of the usually circular or octagonal church where thetabot ("ark") dedicated to the church's patron saint is housed.[84][unreliable source?] On important religious holidays, the tabot is carried on the head of a priest and escorted in procession outside the church. It is the tabot, not the church, which is consecrated. At many services, most parish members remain in the outer ring, wheredebteras sing hymns and dance.[85]
Mid-20th centuryprocessional cross from theAmhara Region, typically carried on long poles in Ethiopian Orthodox religious processions
TheEucharist is given only to those who feel pure, have fasted regularly, and have, in general, properly conducted themselves.[84] In practice, communion is mainly limited to young children and the elderly; those who are at a sexually active age or who have sexual desires generally do not receive the Eucharist.[citation needed] Worshipers receiving communion may enter the middle ring of the church to do so.[84]
The Ethiopian Orthodox church isTrinitarian,[86] maintaining the Orthodox teaching, formalised at the council ofNicea, that God is united in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This concept is known assəllase (ሥላሴ),[citation needed] Geʽez for "Trinity".
Daily services constitute only a small part of an Ethiopian Orthodox Christian's religious observance. Several holy days require prolonged services, singing and dancing, and feasting.
An important religious requirement, however, is the keeping offast days, during which adherents abstain from consuming meat and animal products, and refrain from sexual activity.[84][87][88] The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has 250 fasting days, 180 of which are obligatory for lay people, not just monks and priests, whenvegan food is eaten by the faithful. During the 40-day Advent fast, only one vegan meal is allowed per day.[89]
An Ethiopian Orthodox ceremony at Fasilides' Bath inGondar, Ethiopia, celebratingTimkat (Epiphany)
Abiy-Tsome or Hudadi [ሁዳዴ/ዓብይ ጾም] (Great Lent)-55 days prior toEaster (Fasika).[90][91] This fast is divided into three separate periods: Tsome Hirkal (ጾመ ህርቃል), eight days commemoratingHeraclius; Tsome Arba (ጾመ አርባ), forty days ofLent; and Tsome Himamat (ጾመ ሕማማት), seven days commemoratingHoly Week.[90][91][92]
Fast of the Apostles-10–40 days, which the Apostles kept after they had received theHoly Spirit. It begins afterPentecost.
Tsome Dihnet (ጾመ ድህነት)- which is on Wednesdays in commemoration of the plot organized to killJesus Christ byCaiaphas and the members of the house of the high priest and Fridays in commemoration of theCrucifixion ofJesus Christ (starts on Wednesday afterPentecost and spans up to Easter, in other words all Wednesdays and Fridays except during 50 days after Easter).[84]
The fast ofDormition of Mother of God- it is observed for 16 days.
The fast of the prophets-The fast preceding Christmas, 40 days (Advent). It begins with Sibket on 15th Hedar and ends on Christmas Eve with the feast of Gena and the 29th of Tahsas and 28th if the year is preceded by leap year.
TheFast of Nineveh-commemorating the preaching ofJonah. It comes on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday of the third week before Lent.
Gahad Fast-Timkat (Epiphany)-fast on the eve of Epiphany.
In addition to standard holy days, most Christians observe many saints' days. A man might give a small feast on his personal saint's day. The local voluntary association (called themaheber) connected with each church honours its patron saint with a special service and a feast two or three times a year.[85]
Priests intervene and performexorcisms on behalf of those believed to be afflicted by demons orbuda. According to a 2010Pew Research Center study, 74% of Christians in Ethiopia report having experienced or witnessed an exorcism.[93] Demon-possessed persons are brought to a church or prayer meeting.[94] Often, when an ill person has not responded to modern medical treatment, the affliction is attributed to demons.[94] Unusual or especially perverse deeds, particularly when performed in public, are symptomatic of a demoniac.[94] Superhuman strength—such as breaking one's bindings, as described in the New Testament accounts—along withglossolalia are observed in the afflicted.[94] Amsalu Geleta, in a modern case study, relates elements that are common to Ethiopian Christian exorcisms:
It includes singing praise and victory songs, reading from the Scripture, prayer and confronting the spirit in the name of Jesus. Dialogue with the spirit is another important part of the exorcism ceremony. It helps the counsellor (exorcist) to know how the spirit was operating in the life of the demoniac. The signs and events mentioned by the spirit are affirmed by the victim after deliverance.[94]
The exorcism is not always successful, and Geleta notes another instance in which the usual methods were unsuccessful, and the demons apparently left the subject at a later time. In any event, "in all cases the spirit is commanded in no other name than the name of Jesus."[94]
Ethiopian Orthodox celebration ofMeskel (Geʽez for "cross")
The divine services of the Ethiopian Church are celebrated inGeʽez, which has been theliturgical language of the church at least since the arrival of theNine Saints (Pantelewon, Gerima (Isaac, or Yeshaq), Aftse, Guba, Alef, Yem’ata, Liqanos, and Sehma), who are believed to have fled persecution by theByzantine Empire after theCouncil of Chalcedon (451).[95] The GreekSeptuagint was the version of theOld Testament originally translated into Ge'ez, but later revisions show clear evidence of the use ofHebrew,Syriac andArabic sources. The first translation into a modern vernacular was done in the 19th century by a man usually known asAbu Rumi (died 1819). Later, Haile Selassie sponsoredAmharic translations of the Ge'ez Scriptures during his reign (1930–1974): one in 1935 before World War II and one afterwards (1960–1961).[96]Sermons today are usually delivered in the local language.
There are manymonolithic (rock-hewn) churches in Ethiopia, most famously eleven churches atLalibela. Besides these, two main types of architecture are found—onebasilican, the other native. TheChurch of Our Lady Mary of Zion at Axum is an example of the basilican design, though the early basilicas are nearly all in ruin. These examples show the influence of the architects who, in the 6th century, built the basilicas atSanʻāʼ and elsewhere in theArabian Peninsula. There are two forms of native churches: one oblong, traditionally found inTigray; the other circular, traditionally found inAmhara andShewa (though either style may be found elsewhere). In both forms, the sanctuary is square and stands clear in the centre, and the arrangements are based onJewish tradition. Walls and ceilings are adorned withfrescoes. Acourtyard, circular or rectangular, surrounds the body of the church. Modern Ethiopian churches may incorporate the basilican or native styles and use contemporary construction techniques and materials. In rural areas, the church and outer court are oftenthatched, with mud-built walls. The church buildings are typically surrounded by aforested area, acting as a reservoir of biodiversity in otherwise de-forested parts of the country.[97][98][38]
The Ethiopian Church claims that one of its churches,Our Lady Mary of Zion, is host to the originalArk of the Covenant thatMoses carried with theIsraelites during theExodus. Only one priest is allowed into the building where the Ark is located, ostensibly due to biblical warnings of danger. As a result, international scholars doubt that the original Ark is truly there.[citation needed]
Throughout Ethiopia, Orthodox churches are not considered churches until the local bishop gives them atabot, a replica of the original Ark of the Covenant.[99][100] Thetabot is at least six inches (15 cm) square, and it is made of eitheralabaster,marble, or wood (seeacacia). It is always kept in ornate coverings on the altar.[99] Only priests are allowed to see or touch thetabot.[100][101] In an elaborate procession, thetabot is carried around the outside of the church amid joyful song on the feast day of that particular church's namesake.[99] On the great Feast ofT'imk'et, known asEpiphany or Theophany in Europe, a group of churches send theirtabot to celebrate the occasion at a common location where a pool of water or a river is to be found.[102]
The Ethiopian Church places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in other churches. Women are prohibited from entering the church temple duringmenstruation;[103] they are also expected tocover their hair with a large scarf (orshash) while in church, as described in 1 Corinthians, chapter 11. As with Orthodoxsynagogues, men and women sit separately in the Ethiopian church, with men on the left and women on the right (when facing the altar).[104] Mandated hair coverings for women and separation of the sexes in churches is uncommon in other Christian traditions; but this is the case in some sects ofIslam andJudaism.[105]
Before praying, the Ethiopian Orthodoxremove their shoes in order to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God.[106] Ethiopian Orthodox worshippers remove their shoes when entering a church temple,[104] in accordance withExodus 3:5 (in whichMoses, while viewing theburning bush, was commanded to remove his shoes while standing on holy ground). Furthermore, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is known to observe theseventh-day Sabbath (Saturday, or the lesser Sabbath), in addition to theLord's Day (Sunday, or the Christian Sabbath),[107] recognizing both to be holy days of joy, prayer, and contemplation, although more emphasis, because of theResurrection of Christ, is laid upon Sunday. While the Ethiopian Church is known for this practice, it is neither an innovation nor unique to it,[108] deriving from theApostolic Constitutions and theApostolic Canons[109][110] the former of which without the Apostolic Canons included is in the church's 81-book canon as theDidascalia. The nature of the Sabbath only became a doctrinal dispute in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria in the centuries leading up to the issue being rectified byEwostatewos.[111] The emperorGelawdewos in hisConfession, anapologia of traditional beliefs and practices says "we do not honour it as the Jews do... but we so honour it that we celebrate thereon the Eucharist and have love-feasts, even as our Fathers the Apostles have taught us in the Didascalia".[112]
It is a common cultural practice for members of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to undergo malecircumcision and to abstain from meats deemed unclean.[113][114][115][115][116][117][118] This is purely done as a cultural tradition and not out of religious obligation, the liturgy explicitly stating "let us not be circumcised like the Jews. We know that He who had to fulfil the law and the prophets has already come.".[119][120][121][122][123]
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church prescribes several kinds ofhand washing and traditionally follow rituals that are similar to Jewishnetilat yadayim, for example after leaving the latrine, lavatory or bathhouse, or before prayer, or after eating a meal.[124] The Ethiopian Orthodox Church observes days ofritual purification.[125][126] People who are ritually unclean may approach the church but are not permitted to enter it; they instead stand near the church door andpray during the liturgy.[127]
Rugare Rukuni and Erna Oliver identify the Nine Saints asJewish Christians, and attribute the Judaic character of Ethiopian Christianity, in part, to their influence.[128]: 6, 8
Adebtera is an itinerant lay man trained by the Ethiopian Church to function principally as ascribe orcantor, equivalent tominor orders. These men may act as deacons or exorcists, and the role of folk healer is commonly undertaken as well. Folklore and legends ascribe the role of magician to the debtera as well.[129]
Ethiopian Orthodox priests dancing during 2015Timkat celebration
The music of Ethiopian Orthodox Church traced back toSaint Yared, who composedZema or "chant", which divided into three modes: Geʽez (ordinary days), Ezel (fast days and Lent) and Araray (principal feasts).[130] It is important to Ethiopian liturgy and divided into fourteen Anaphoras, the normal use being of the Twelve Apostles. In ancient times, there were six Anaphoras used by many monasteries.[131]
Since 1959, when the church was grantedautocephaly byCyril VI,Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Ethiopian Patriarch-Catholicos of Eritrea also carrying the title of Abuna is the head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. The Abuna is officially known asPatriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Archbishop of Axum and Ichege of the See of Saint Taklahaimanot. The incumbent head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church isMathias who acceded to this position on 28 February 2013.
Archbishops and bishops
Ethiopia
Mathias, Patriarch and Head of all Archbishops of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
^ab"Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century".Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 8 November 2017.Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has an estimated 38 million adherents, nearly 14% of the world's total Orthodox population.
^Getatchew Haile, “The Monastic Reform of Abba Ewostatewos,” Journal of Ethiopian Studies, vol. 8, no. 1, 1970, pp. 29–50.
^Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270–1527 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), pp. 209–232.
^Paolo Marrassini, “Ewostatewos,” in Siegbert Uhlig (ed.), Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, vol. 2 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005), pp. 429–431.
^Steven Kaplan, The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1984), pp. 98–103.
^Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270–1527, pp. 243–247.
^Getatchew Haile, “The Ethiopian Church and Its Leadership: The Struggle for Independence,” Church History, vol. 44, no. 3, 1975, pp. 283–297.
^Bairu Tafla, “Estifanos, Abba,” in Siegbert Uhlig (ed.), Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, vol. 2 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005), pp. 392–393.
^Habtemichael Kidane, “The Stephanite Movement and Its Theological Significance,” Aethiopica 13 (2010): 157–176.
^Getatchew Haile, “The Acts of Abba Estifanos of Gwendagwende: The Struggle for Faith and Freedom in Fifteenth Century Ethiopia,” Analecta Bollandiana 93 (1975): 333–368.
^Steven Kaplan, The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1984), pp. 113–128.
^Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270–1527, pp. 269–278.
^Girma Getahun, “Abba Estifanos and the Stephanites: Resistance to Imperial Power in Fifteenth-Century Ethiopia,” Journal of Religion in Africa 27, no. 4 (1997): 403–425.
^Getatchew Haile, “The Persecution of Abba Estifanos and His Disciples,” Analecta Bollandiana 94 (1976): 311–345.
^Daniels, David D. (2 November 2017)."Martin Luther and Ethiopian Christianity: Historical Traces".University of Chicago. Retrieved9 April 2018.Luther expressed his approval of the Church of Ethiopia along with his embrace of Deacon Michael in a letter dated July 4, 1534: "For this reason we ask that good people would demonstrate Christian love also to this [Ethiopian] visitor." According to Luther, Michael responded positively to his articles of the Christian faith, proclaiming: "This is a good creed, that is, faith" (see Martin Luther, Table-Talk, November 17, 1538 [WA, TR 4:152–53, no. 4126]).
^Daniels, David D. (31 October 2017)."Martin Luther's fascination with Ethiopian Christianity".The Christian Century. Retrieved9 April 2018.Luther extended full fellowship to Deacon Michael and the Ethiopian Church, an invitation Luther withheld from the Bohemian Brethren (the Hussites) and Reformed Churches connected to Ulrich Zwingli.
^Edward Ullendorff,Ethiopia and the Bible (Oxford: British Academy, 1988), p. 66
^Margary Perham,The Government of Ethiopia, second edition (London: Faber and Faber, 1969), pp. 121f
^Giulia Paravicini, “Tigrayan Orthodox Church breaks away from Ethiopia’s main synod,” Reuters, 9 May 2023.
^abShira Rubin, “Divisions in Ethiopia’s ancient church pose new threat to stability,” The Washington Post, 12 Apr. 2023.
^“Ethiopia: Nationalism tears Orthodox Church apart,” The Africa Report, 14 Feb 2024.
^“Tigrayan Orthodox Church breaks away from Ethiopia’s main synod,” Reuters, 9 May 2023.
^“The Tigray war and the schism in the Ethiopian Orthodox church,” Geeska, 8 Dec 2024.
^“The cause and context of the crisis of schism in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOTC),” Religion Unplugged, 4 Feb 2023.
^“War crimes and rebel bishops: Christmas celebrations marred by bitter split in Ethiopia’s ancient church,” The Guardian, 6 Jan 2025.
^Amnesty International, “Eritrean troops massacre of hundreds of Axum civilians may amount to a crime against humanity,” 26 Feb. 2021.
^Human Rights Watch & Amnesty International, “’We Will Erase You from This Land’: Crimes Against Humanity and Ethnic Cleansing in Ethiopia’s Western Tigray Zone,” 6 Apr. 2022.
^Martin Plaut, “Monastery ‘bombed and looted’ in Ethiopian war (Debre Damo),” The Times via Eritrea Hub, 15 Feb. 2021.
^Jason Burke, “Fabled Ark could be among ancient treasures in danger in Ethiopia’s deadly war,” The Guardian, 24 Jan. 2021.
^African Arguments, “Tigray: why are soldiers attacking religious heritage sites?” 11 Mar. 2021.
^The Guardian, “Tigray conflict: Eritrean soldiers accused of looting and massacres,” 5 Mar. 2021.
^Giulia Paravicini, “Ethiopian Orthodox Church head says genocide is taking place in Tigray,” Reuters, 9 May 2021.
^Voice of America, “Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarch Blasts ‘Genocide’ in Tigray,” 9 May 2021.
^abcdeProfessor Sergew Hable Sellassie & Belaynesh Mikael (2003) [1970]."Worship in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church".The Church of Ethiopia – A Panorama of History and Spiritual Life.Addis Ababa. Retrieved5 November 2014 – via EthiopianOrthodox.org.
^abRobel Arega."Fasting in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church". Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Sunday School Department – Mahibere Kidusan. Why Fifty-Five Days?. Archived fromthe original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved30 March 2017.
^"Ten things we have learnt about Africa".BBC News. April 15, 2010. RetrievedApril 15, 2010.In Ethiopia, 74% of Christians say they have experienced or witnessed the devil or evil spirits being driven out of a person
^abc"tabot".British Museum. Retrieved2024-01-31.Curator's comments… The Tabots remain in the Qeddest Qeddusan and are only brought out of the churches at festival times or in times of calamity, in order to pray for divine help. When they leave the Queddest Qeddusan they are carried on the heads of priests, veiled from public view by richly decorated cloths. Ornate silk umbrellas are held over the Tabots as a sign of respect.
^ab"The Ark of Covenant".The Official Website of Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church. 2021-12-01. Retrieved2024-02-02.
^Binns, John (28 November 2016).The Orthodox Church of Ethiopia: A History. I.B.Tauris. p. 58.ISBN9781786720375.The king presided, overruled the bishops who were committed to the more usual position that Sunday only was a holy day, and decreed that the Sabbatarian teaching of the northern monks became the position of the church.
^"The Sabbath: A Hallowed and Holy Day".Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States.Since the first century, Christians made Sunday the Christian Sabbath and kept Saturday as the Jewish Sabbath.
^Platt, Thomas Pell (1834)."The Ethiopic Didascalia: Or, the Ethiopic Version of the Apostolical Constitutions, Received in the Church of Abyssinia".Assemble yourselves together in the church, evening and morning; offer up praises, and sing; and read the Psalms of David, the sixty-second, and moreover the hundred and fortieth. And especially on the Jewish Sabbath, and on the first day of the week, the Christian Sabbath, which is the day of His holy resurrection, offer up praises and thanksgivings and glory to the Lord, who hath created all things by his Son Jesus Christ, whom he sent unto us, who was pleased to suffer according to his will, and was buried in the tomb, and rose again from the dead.
^"Apostolic Constitutions (Book VIII)".New Advent.XXXIII. I Peter and Paul do make the following constitutions. Let the slaves work five days; but on the Sabbath day and the Lord's day let them have leisure to go to church for instruction in piety. We have said that the Sabbath is on account of the creation, and the Lord's day of the resurrection. Let slaves rest from their work all the great week, and that which follows it — for the one in memory of the passion, and the other of the resurrection; and there is need they should be instructed who it is that suffered and rose again, and who it is permitted Him to suffer, and raised Him again. Let them have rest from their work on the Ascension, because it was the conclusion of the dispensation by Christ. Let them rest at Pentecost, because of the coming of the Holy Spirit, which was given to those that believed in Christ. Let them rest on the festival of His birth, because on it the unexpected favour was granted to men, that Jesus Christ, the Logos of God, should be born of the Virgin Mary, for the salvation of the world. Let them rest on the festival of Epiphany, because on it a manifestation took place of the divinity of Christ, for the Father bore testimony to Him at the baptism; and the Paraclete, in the form of a dove, pointed out to the bystanders Him to whom testimony was borne. Let them rest on the days of the apostles: for they were appointed your teachers to bring you to Christ, and made you worthy of the Spirit. Let them rest on the day of the first martyr Stephen, and of the other holy martyrs who preferred Christ to their own life.
^"Circumcision".Columbia Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2011.
^N. Stearns, Peter (2008).The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World.Oxford University Press. p. 179.ISBN9780195176322.Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.
^abR. Peteet, John (2017).Spirituality and Religion Within the Culture of Medicine: From Evidence to Practice. Oxford University Press. pp. 97–101.ISBN9780190272432.male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US.
^DeMello, Margo (2007).Encyclopedia of Body Adornment.ABC-Clio. p. 66.ISBN9780313336959.Coptic Christians, Ethiopian Orthodox, and Eritrean Orthodox churches on the other hand, do observe the ordainment, and circumcise their sons anywhere from the first week of life to the first few years.
^Daoud, Marcos (1959).The Liturgy of the Ethiopian Church. Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Kingston, Jamaica. p. 41.ISBN151886466X.Henceforth, let us not be circumcised like the Jews. We know that He who had to fulfil the law and the prophets has already come.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Ibn Assal, Al Safy (1996)."The Collection Of Safey Ibn Al-Assal"(PDF).stmary-church.com. Retrieved2025-07-19. About food, nothing is forbidden except those which were forbidden by the Apostles in the Book of Acts and their Cannons in which they said: “That ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well. Fare ye well.”.
^Bausi, Alessandro (2022)."The Confession of King Gälawdewos (r. 1540–1559): A Sixteenth-Century Ethiopian Monophysite Document against Jesuit Proselytism".ResearchGate.And concerning circumcision, we are not circumcised as the Jews, because we know the words of Paul the spring of wisdom, who saith, 'Circumcision availeth not, and uncircumcision availeth not, but rather a new creature, which is, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ.' And again he saith to the men of Corinth, 'He that hath received circumcision, let him not receive uncircumcision.' All the books of the doctrine of Paul are in our hands, and teach us concerning circumcision and uncircumcision. But the circumcision that is practised amongst us is according to the custom of the country, like the tattooing of the face in Ethiopia and Nubia and the piercing of the ear amongst the Indians. And what we do (we do) not in observance of the Law of Moses, but according to the custom of men.
^Bausi, Alessandro (2022)."The Confession of King Gälawdewos (r. 1540–1559): A Sixteenth-Century Ethiopian Monophysite Document against Jesuit Proselytism".ResearchGate.And concerning the eating of swine's flesh we are not prohibited from it, as the Jews are, by observance of the Law. Him also who eats thereof we do not abhor, and him who eats not thereof we do not compel to eat, as our Father Paul wrote to the Church of Rome, saying, 'Let not him who eateth despise him who eateth not; and, God receiveth all'. The Kingdom of God is not eating and drinking, all is clean to the clean, but it is evil for a man to eat with offence. And Matthew the Evangelist saith, 'There is nothing that can defile the man except that which cometh forth from his mouth, but that which is in the belly goeth forth and is contained in the draught, and is cast out and poured forth; and (thus) He maketh all meats clean'.
^H. Bulzacchelli, Richard (2006).Judged by the Law of Freedom: A History of the Faith-works Controversy, and a Resolution in the Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas.University Press of America. p. 19.ISBN9780761835011.The Ethiopian and Coptic Churches distinguishes between clean and unclean meats, observes days of ritual purification, and keeps a kind of dual Sabbath on both Saturday and Sunday.
^Pedersen, Kristen Stoffregen (1999). "Is the Church of Ethiopia a Judaic Church?".Warszawskie Studia Teologiczne.XII (2):205–206.
^"Protest Held In Washington, DC Against Religious Attacks In Ethiopia". Getty Images. 2023-04-05. Retrieved2023-12-07.Abune Fanuel, archbishop of Washington DC for the Ethiopian Orthodox church is surrounded by young deacons and clergy as he speaks during a demonstration at the White House on February 05, 2023 in Washington, DC.
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