Estonian literature (Estonian:eesti kirjandus) is literature written in theEstonian language (c. 1,100,000 speakers)[1]
The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century.Originates Livoniae inChronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and fragments of sentences. TheLiber Census Daniae (1241) contains Estonian place and family names.[2] While sporadic Estonian names and words exist within otherwise Latin and Low German documentation of Hanseatic Tallinn,[3] some of the earliest surviving samples of handwritten connected Estonian originate from theDominicanSt. Catherine's Monastery, Tallinn during the 15th century.[4] The earliest longer manuscript in Estonian consists of the so-called Kullamaa prayers dating from 1524 and 1528.[5]
With theReformation and advent of theprinting press, the use of written Estonian became more widespread. The first known instance of a printed book in Estonian dates from 1525,[6] while the oldest surviving printed book is a bilingualGerman–Estonian translation of theLutheran catechism (Wanradt–Koell Catechism) bySimon Wanradt [de] andJohann Koell [de] (1535). For the use of priests an Estonian grammar was printed in German in 1637.[7]The New Testament was translated intosouthern Estonian in 1686 (northern Estonian, 1715). The two dialects were united byAnton Thor Helle in a form based on northern Estonian. Writings in Estonian became more significant and numerous during theEstophile Enlightenment Period (1750–1840).
The cultural stratum of Estonian was originally characterised by a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity. Apart from a few albeit remarkable exceptions, this archaic form has not been much employed in later times. The most outstanding achievements in this field are the national epicKalevipoeg (Son of Kalev), written byFriedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald (1803–1882);Gustav Suits's balladLapse sünd (Birth of a Child);Villem Grünthal-Ridala's (1885–1942) poemToomas ja Kai (Toomas and Mai) and three poems byAugust Annist (1899–1972). At a professional level, traditional folk song reached its new heyday during the last quarter of the 20th century, primarily thanks to the work of composerVeljo Tormis.
In modern timesA. H. Tammsaare (1878–1940),Jaan Kross (1920–2007),Andrus Kivirähk (born 1970), andRobert Kurvitz (1984) remainEstonia's best known and most translated writers.
As opposed to the recent nature of written literature, the oral tradition, found in collections of Estonian folklore, tells of the ancient pre–Northern Crusades period of independence. The first fragmentary records ofEstonian folk poetry, dating from the 13th century, can be found in theChronicle of Henry of Livonia; in the late 18th century Johann Gottfried von Herder published examples of Estonian folk songs in his anthologyVolkslieder (1807).Jakob Hurt (1839–1907) was the first to start systematically collecting Estonian folklore in the second half of the 19th century, planning a multivolume series on Estonian folklore, calledMonumenta Estoniae Antiquae. Hurt coined the phrase which to this day shapes the mentality of the nation of one million people:If we cannot be great in number, then we must be great in spirit.[8]
Chronicles and theatrical performances by theBaltic German nobility formed the basis for local Baltic German literature which, despite the barriers of status and language, affected Estonian literature. The earliest example of Estonian language poetry dates back to 1637, a poem written byReiner Brockmann (1609–1647), teacher of Greek at theTallinn Gymnasium.[9]Otto Wilhelm Masing (1763–1832) was the first literate who had a thorough mastery of theEstonian language.[2] He published an Estonian-languagealphabet book calledABD ehk Luggemise-Ramat Lastele in 1795.[10][11]
Cannot the tongue of this land
In the fire of incantation
Rising up to the heavens
Seek for eternity?
Those lines have been interpreted as a claim to reestablish the birthright of the Estonian language.Kristjan Jaak Peterson (1801–1822) is considered the founder of modern Estonian poetry. He gathered his Estonian poems into two small books but never saw them published: this only occurred a hundred years after his death (although three German poems were published posthumously in 1823). One of Peterson's projects was fulfilled in his lifetime, the German version of Kristfrid Ganander'sMythologia Fennica, a dictionary of Finnish mythological words and names (the Swedish original was published in 1789). Peterson's translation of Ganander's dictionary found many readers in Estonia and abroad, becoming an important source of national ideology and inspiration for early Estonian literature. Its dominating influence extended through the first decades of the 20th century.[12]
The outstanding achievements in folklore imitate the epics: the national epicKalevipoeg was compiled by doctors of Estonian origin:Friedrich Robert Faehlmann began the epic and it was finished byFriedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald. The romantic ideology of the 19th century laid down the requirements for a national literature. The idea of an epic was the product of a humanist circle called theLearned Estonian Society (Gelehrte Estnische Gesellschaft), where Faehlmann had presented his paper in 1839 on a mythical hero called Kalewipoeg (Son of Kalew). After Faehlmann's death in 1850 the society handed the manuscripts over to Kreutzwald. The first edition ofKalevipoeg (1857–61) was bilingual, the German text being presented side by side with the Estonian original. A popular Estonian edition in a single volume followed in 1862.[13]
Lydia Koidula (1843–1886) was the initiator of a tradition of Estonian patriotic andwomen's poetry during the era.
In the late 19th century, a poet emerged who profoundly affected Estonian poetry as a whole –Juhan Liiv (1864–1913). During the last decade of the 19th century, a contemporary of Liiv's,Eduard Vilde (1865–1933), gave arealistic direction to Estonian prose.[14]
With the formation of the group Noor-Eesti (Young Estonia) in 1905, led by the poetGustav Suits (1883–1956), the linguist and poetVillem Grünthal-Ridala (1885–1942) and the reformer of the Estonian languageJohannes Aavik (1880–1973), Estonian literature gained a new intellectual impetus. The most prominent prose writer of the time, still widely read today, wasOskar Luts (1887–1953). Another significant author wasJaan Oks (1884–1918).The poetry ofErnst Enno (1875–1934) gained popularity much later.
The rationality of the Young Estonians was counterbalanced by the group of writers from theSiuru movement, established in 1917. The central and peripheral poets of Siuru were:August Gailit (1891–1960),Friedebert Tuglas (1886–1971),Johannes Semper (1892–1970),Artur Adson (1889–1977),August Alle (1890–1952),Henrik Visnapuu (1890–1951),Peet Aren (1889–1970),Otto Krusten (1888–1937), andMarie Under (1883–1980).
The magazineEesti Kirjandus (Estonian Literature) was founded in 1906, andEesti Kirjanduse Selts (Estonian Literary Society) in 1907.
After the establishment of theRepublic of Estonia, professionalism and diversity in literature were followed by the emergence of literary institutions. The Estonian Writers Union was founded in 1922; the literary monthlyLooming (Creation) first appeared in 1923 and is still the main periodical of its sort in Estonia. The Cultural Endowment Fund started work in 1925 and is the major provider of grants in the arts in the present-day Republic of Estonia.
The prevailing tendency in prose writing between the two World Wars was realism. The most prominent writer of the era isA. H. Tammsaare (1878–1940). His five volume epic novelTõde ja Õigus (Truth and Justice, 1926–1933) is considered one of the major works of Estonian literature.[15] Other prominent prose writers were:Marta Sillaots (1887–1969),August Mälk (1900–1987),Karl Ristikivi (1912–1977).August Gailit appeared on the literary scene along with theSiuru group.
TheArbujad ("Soothsayers") was a small but influential group of poets who began collaborating in 1938 at the behest of poet and authorAnts Oras (1900–1982) and included:Betti Alver (1906–1989),Uku Masing (1909–1985),Mart Raud (1903–1980),Kersti Merilaas (1913–1986),Bernard Kangro (1910–1994),Heiti Talvik (1904–1947),August Sang (1914–1969) andPaul Viiding (1904–1962). While group's poetic works tended to be eclectic, there was a common desire among members to reach a deeper intellectual and emotional plane. TheArbujad poets were for the freedom and independence of the people while being against ideological coercion and totalitarian concepts.
After theSecond World War Estonian literature was split in two for almost half a century. A number of prominent writers who spent the war years in Estonia fled from Soviet forces to Germany in 1944 (Visnapuu) or to Sweden, either directly or via Finland (Suits, Under, Gailit, Kangro, Mälk, Ristikivi). Many of those who remained behind and did not follow the ideology of the Soviet occupying power suffered either death in Siberia (Talvik and playwrightHugo Raudsepp) or a combination of repression, a ban on publication and interior exile (Tuglas, Alver, Masing). Despite the modest circumstances of the war and post-war years, creative activity and publishing started almost immediately, both in the temporary stopovers in Finland, and in the refugee camps in Sweden and Germany.
In 1945 the Estonian Writers' Union in Exile was founded inStockholm. In 1950Bernard Kangro began publishing the cultural magazineTulimuld in Lund (published until 1993). Eesti Kirjanike Kooperatiiv, the largest Estonian-language publishing house in exile, was set up and its method of book distribution secured the continuity of literary life on an institutional level and on a global scale, except in the Soviet-controlled homeland. Estonians abroad also did their best to introduce Estonian literature to the world: in the USA,Ivar Ivask (1927–1992) editedWorld Literature Today in which he published numerous articles and reviews about Estonian literature.
The poetry collection by surrealistIlmar Laaban (1921–2000) was at first the only modernist work, until 1953 whenKarl Ristikivi, essentially a conservative writer, published his novelThe Night of the Souls.Arved Viirlaid's (1922) novelSeitse kohtupäeva (Seven Days of Trial, 1957) was a detour into modernism.Ilmar Jaks (1923) became a more consistent cultivator of the technique of the modern novel. The subject matter of literary output was greatly enriched by descriptions of the countries where various writers had settled, likeKarl Rumor (1886–1971) in Brazil, orGert Helbemäe (1913–1974) in England. In the second half of the 1950s Kalju Lepik (1920–1999) was a poet in exile who rose to prominence alongside Bernard Kangro. Kalju Lepik's first visit to his homeland in 1990 and the publication of his last collections of poetry there, symbolises the end of the split.
In Estonia a relaxation of the strictures of the Soviet regime after the death of Stalin opened the way for various Estonian writers:Minni Nurme (1917–1994),Jaan Kross (1920–2007)Artur Alliksaar (1923–1966),Ain Kaalep (1921–2020),Kersti Merilaas (1916–1986) andEllen Niit (1928–2016). Against that background a new "Cassette Generation" emerged in 1962–1967 (so-called because of the small poetry chapbooks which appeared together in small cardboard boxes termedkassett in Estonian).Jaan Kaplinski (1941–2021) was greatly inspired by Oriental religion and nature. Other authors of note wereMats Traat (born 1936),Hando Runnel (born 1938),Viivi Luik (born 1946),Aimée Beekman (born 1933),Andres Ehin (1940–2011), andIlmar Laaban (1921–2000).
The political stagnation that followed the crushing of thePrague Spring in 1968 was reflected inPaul-Eerik Rummo's initially banned minimalist collection. The collection did not appear in its entirety until 1989. So-called alternative literature was disseminated in manuscript form, the most significant authors in this field being the dissident poetJaan Isotamm (pseudonym Johnny B. Isotamm, 1939–2014) and the prose writerToomas Vint (born 1944). The most remarkable poet of the 1960s and 1970s wasJuhan Viiding (pseudonym Jüri Üdi, 1948–1995, son of former Arbujad member, poet Paul Viiding), whose first collectionNerve Print appeared in 1971. Despite all attempts to ban it, the popular and song-like nature of Hando Runnel's patriotic verse secured its huge circulation. His collectionThe Purple of the Red Evenings, 1982 was allowed into print but the publication of any reviews in the press remained forbidden.[16]
Republic of Estoniaregained independence from the Soviet occupation in 1991. The two Estonian Writers' Unions were merged in 2000.
In a way, Emil Tode’s (pen name ofTõnu Õnnepalu, 1962)Piiririik ("Border State") marked the beginning of a new era in 1993.Border State raised the topic of "Euro-literature", where one of the central issues is the wanderings of Estonians abroad, their search for an identity in a world with open borders.[17]
The intertextual poetry ofJaan Undusk (born 1958),Mati Unt andViivi Luik andHasso Krull (born 1964) prepared the ground for a bold new Estonian literature. The most remarkable prose writers of the younger generation who emerged in the end of 20th century wereAndrus Kivirähk (born 1970),Karl-Martin Sinijärv (born 1971),Mehis Heinsaar (born 1973),Peeter Sauter (born 1962) andJüri Ehlvest (1967–2006), who deepened the subjects and topics opened up by Õnnepalu in a way both comical and cryptic.
While Jaan Kross and Jaan Kaplinski remained Estonia's best known and most translated writers abroad, in the 1990s short stories ofEeva Park and the novels of Tõnu Õnnepalu andErvin Õunapuu also enjoyed moderate success in Germany and Scandinavia.[18]
Jaan Kross was tipped for theNobel Prize for Literature on several occasions. On his return from the labour camps and internal exile in Russia, where he spent nine long years (1946–1954) as a political prisoner, Kross breathed new life into Estonian poetry. Kross began writing prose in the latter half of the 1960s.[19] Jaan Kaplinski was the most productive Modernist in Estonian poetry; he wrote essays and plays, translated, lectured home and overseas and was Writer-in-Residence at theUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth.[20]
The beginning of the 21st century has been fruitful for Estonian literature. Blossoming out of the waning nineties; a new, vibrant generation of poets appeared.Jürgen Rooste (1979),Ivar Sild (1977),Wimberg (pen name of Jaak Urmet, 1979) andKristiina Ehin (1977) have all distinctive voices combined with a profound knowledge of both Estonian and world literature.
Rooste is definitely the most socially-involved and "beat-like" of them all.[21] Sild proclaims his gay outlook, Wimberg creates absurd landscapes through the use of childlike language and style[22] and Ehin maintains the tradition of the "great female poet" of Estonia.[23]
Proses also flourishes. Over recent years, the work ofRein Raud has won him both numerous awards at home and international acclaim. His most notable books includeThe Reconstruction, the story of a dying father trying to find out the circumstances of his daughter's suicide in a religious cult (2012, in English 2017, Dalkey Archive Press[24]) andThe Brother (2008, in English 2016, Open Letter Books[25]), called by the author "a spaghetti Western in poetic prose".Andrus Kivirähk has skilfully combined his comic talent and ethno-fantasy inThe Man Who Spoke Snakish (2007, in English 2015, Grove Press[26]).Indrek Hargla is a prolific writer of several kinds of genre fiction including sci-fi, fantasy and crime. His reputation relies mainly on his Apothecary Melchior series, set in medieval Tallinn. BesidesKaur Kender (1971), whose finest hour was in 1998 with the debut novelIseseisvuspäev ("Independence Day"), a younger generation is appearing.Sass Henno (1982) stays in theChuck Palahniuk-influenced tradition of Kaur Kender.[27]Chaneldior wrote a quintessential novel in the manner ofBret Easton Ellis calledKontrolli alt väljas ("Out of Control") in 2008[28] andPeeter Helme's (1978) second novelSeptember (2009) received critical acclaim for its realistic description of life in Tallinn's office environments as existed at the dawn of this new millennium.[29]
According to a studyEstonia leads the world in book ownership, on averageEstonians own 218 different books per house, and 35% own 350 books or more (as of 2018).[30]
