Eschatology (/ˌɛskəˈtɒlədʒi/ⓘ; from Ancient Greekἔσχατος (éskhatos)'last' and -logy) concerns expectations of the end ofpresent age,human history, or the world itself.[1] Theend of the world orend times[2] is predicted by severalworld religions (bothAbrahamic andDharmic), which teach that negative world events will reach a climax. Belief that the end of the world is imminent is known asapocalypticism, and over time has been held both by members of mainstream religions and bydoomsday cults. In the context ofmysticism, the term refers metaphorically to the end of ordinary reality and to reunion with thedivine. Many religions treat eschatology as a future event prophesied in sacred texts or infolklore, while other religions may have concepts of renewal or transformation after significant events.
The Abrahamic religions maintain a linearcosmology, with end-time scenarios containing themes oftransformation andredemption. InJudaism, the term "end of days" makes reference to theMessianic Age and includes an in-gathering of the exiledJewish diaspora, the coming of theMessiah, theresurrection of the righteous, and theworld to come.Christianity depicts the end time as a period oftribulation that precedes thesecond coming ofChrist, who will face the rise of theAntichrist along with his power structure andfalse prophets, and usher in theKingdom of God. The explicit description of a new earth is primarily found in Christian teachings (this description can be found in Chapter 21 of theBook of Revelation). In later traditions of Islam, separate hadiths detail theDay of Judgment as preceded by the appearance of theMasīḥ ad-Dajjāl, and followed by the descending ofʿĪsā (Jesus), which shall triumph over the false Messiah or Antichrist; his defeat will lead to a sequence of events that will end with the sun rising from the west and the beginning of theQiyāmah (Judgment Day).
Dharmic religions tend to have more cyclical worldviews, with end-time eschatologies characterized bydecay, redemption, and rebirth (though some believe transitions between cycles are relatively uneventful). InHinduism, the end time occurs whenKalki, the final incarnation ofVishnu, descends atop awhite horse and brings an end to the currentKali Yuga, completing a cycle that starts again with the regeneration of the world. InBuddhism, theBuddha predicted his teachings would be forgotten after 5,000 years, followed by turmoil. It says abodhisattva namedMaitreya will appear and rediscover the teachings of theBuddha Dharma, and that the ultimate destruction of the world will then come through seven suns.
The word "eschatology" arises from theAncient Greek termἔσχατος (éschatos), meaning "last", and-logy, meaning "the study of", and first appeared in English around 1844.[4] TheOxford English Dictionary defines eschatology as "the part of theology concerned with death, judgment, and the final destiny of the soul and of humankind".[5]
God will raise up a regent from the House of David, theJewish Messiah, to lead the Jewish people and the world and to usher in an age of justice and peace, theMessianic Age.
Non-Jews will recognize that theGod of Israel is the only true god.
Judaism usually refers to the end times as the "end of days" (aḥarit ha-yamim, אחרית הימים), a phrase that appears several times in theTanakh. The end times are addressed in theBook of Daniel and in numerous other prophetic passages in the Hebrew scriptures, and also in theTalmud, particularly TractateAvodah Zarah.
The idea of a Messianic Age, an era of global peace and knowledge of the Creator, has a prominent place in Jewish thought, and is incorporated as part of the end of days. A well-known passage from theBook of Isaiah describes this future condition of the world: "They shall beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks; nation will not lift sword against nation and they will no longer study warfare" (Isaiah 2:4, see alsoMicah 4:3).[6]Maimonides (1135–1204) further describes the Messianic Era in theMishneh Torah: "And at that time there will be no hunger or war, no jealousy or rivalry. For the good will be plentiful, and all delicacies available as dust. The entire occupation of the world will be only to know God;... the people Israel will be of great wisdom; they will perceive the esoteric truths and comprehend their Creator's wisdom as is the capacity of man. As it is written (Isaiah 11:9): 'For the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of God, as the waters cover the sea.'"[8]
Frashokereti is theZoroastrian doctrine of a final renovation of the universe when evil will be destroyed, and everything else will then be in perfect unity with God (Ahura Mazda). The doctrinal premises are:
Good will eventually prevail over evil.
Creation, initially perfectly good, was subsequently corrupted by evil.
The world will ultimately be restored to the perfection it had at the time of creation.
The "salvation for the individual depended on the sum of [that person's] thoughts, words and deeds, and there could be no intervention, whether compassionate or capricious, by any divine being to alter this". Thus each human bears theresponsibility for the fate of his own soul, and simultaneously shares in the responsibility for the fate of the world.[19]
Zoroastrian eschatology is considered one of the oldest in recorded history. The birth of its founder,Zoroaster, is unknown, with scholarly dates ranging from 500 BCE to 1,500 BCE.Pliny the Elder even suggests there were two Zoroasters.[20] However, with beliefs paralleling and possibly predating the framework of the major Abrahamic faiths, a fully developed concept of the end of the world was not established in Zoroastrianism until 500 BCE. TheBahman Yasht describes:
At the end of thy tenth hundredth winter, the sun is more unseen and more spotted; the year, month, and day are shorter; and the earth is more barren; and the crop will not yield the seed. And men become more deceitful and more given to vile practices. They will have no gratitude. Honorable wealth will proceed to those of perverted faith. And a dark cloud makes the whole sky night, and it will rain more noxious creatures than water.
A battle between the righteous and wicked will be followed by theFrashokereti. On earth, theSaoshyant will arrive as the final savior of mankind, and bring about theresurrection of the dead. TheyazatasAiryaman andAtar will melt the metal in the hills and mountains, which will flow as lava across the earth and all mankind, both the living and resurrected, will be required to wade through it.Ashavan will pass through the molten river as if it were warm milk, but the sinful will burn. It will then flow down to hell, where it will annihilateAngra Mainyu and the last vestiges of wickedness.
The righteous will partake of theparahaoma, which will confer immortality upon them. Humanity will become like theAmesha Spentas, living without food, hunger, thirst, weapons or injury. Bodies will become so light as to cast no shadow. All humanity will speak a single language, and belong to a single nation with no borders. All will share a single purpose and goal, joining withAhura Mazda for a perpetual and divine exaltation.[21][19]
TheGnostic codexOn the Origin of the World (possibly dating from near the end of the third century AD) states that during what is called the consummation of the age, the Sun and Moon will become dark as the stars change their ordinary course. Kings will make war with each other, and thunder will cause the world to be shaken. The corruptArchons will mourn. The sea will be troubled by fighting of the kings who became drunk from theflaming sword. Finally, great thunder will come fromSophia, the woman in thefirmament above the forces ofChaos. She will cast the corrupt gods into theabyss where they will fight each other until only their chiefYaldabaoth remains and destroys himself. Next the heavens of the Archons will collapse on each other before the Earth sinks into the abyss. Light will cover the darkness and eliminate it then form into something greater than anything that ever existed before. The source of the darkness will dissolve, and the deficiency will be taken from its root. Those who were not perfected in theunconceived one will receive glories in their realms and kingdoms of the immortals, but those who were will enter a kingless realm. All will be judged according to their deeds andgnosis.[22]
Christian eschatology is the study concerned with the ultimate destiny of the individualsoul and of the entire created order, based primarily uponbiblical texts within theOld andNew Testaments.
Eschatological passages occur in many places in the Bible, in both theOld and theNew Testaments. In the Old Testament, apocalyptic eschatology can be found notably inIsaiah 24–27, Isaiah 56–66,Joel,Zechariah 9–14 as well as in the closing chapters ofDaniel, and inEzekiel.[23] In the New Testament, applicable passages includeMatthew 24,Mark 13, theparable of "The Sheep and the Goats" and theBook of Revelation—Revelation often occupies a central place in Christian eschatology.
The Second Coming of Christ is the central event in Christian eschatology within the broader context of the fullness of theKingdom of God. Most Christians believe that death andsuffering will continue to exist until Christ's return. There are, however, various views concerning the order and significance of other eschatological events.
The Book of Revelation stands at the core of much of Christian eschatology. The study of Revelation is usually divided into four interpretative methodologies orhermeneutics:
TheFuturist approach treats the Book of Revelation mostly as unfulfilled prophecy taking place in some yet undetermined future.
ThePreterist approach interprets Revelation chiefly as having had prophetic fulfillment in the past, principally in the events of the first century CE.
TheIdealist approach sees the events of Revelation as neither past nor future actualities, but as purely symbolic accounts, dealing with the ongoing struggle and ultimate triumph ofgood over evil.
First-century Christians believed Jesus would return during their lifetime. When the converts of Paul inThessalonica were persecuted by theRoman Empire, they believed the end of days to be imminent.[33] Most of the scholars participating in thethird quest hold that Jesus was an eschatological prophet who believed the "Kingdom of God" was coming within his own lifetime or within the lifetime of his contemporaries.[34][35][36] This view, generally known as "consistent eschatology," was influential during the early to the mid—twentieth century and continues to be influential today in proposed portraits of theHistorical Jesus. Dale Allison argues that while Jesus expected an imminent end, its date was not unchangeable and was contingent on the repentance of Israel to proceed.[37] However,C. H. Dodd and others have insisted on a "realized eschatology" that says Jesus' own ministry fulfilled prophetic hopes. Many conservative scholars have adopted the paradoxical position theKingdom of God passages describes a kingdom that is both "present" and "still to come" claiming Pauline eschatology as support.[38]: 208–209 R. T. France andN. T. Wright among others have taken Jesus' apocalyptic statements of an imminent end, historically, as referring to the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple in 70 AD.[39][40][41][42]: 143–152 A number of interpretations of the term "Kingdom of God" have thus appeared in its eschatological context, e.g.,apocalyptic,realized orInaugurated eschatologies, yet no consensus has emerged among scholars.[43][44]
While some who believe in the literal interpretation of the Bible insist the prediction of dates or times is futile, others believe Jesus foretold signs of the end of days. The precise time, however, will come like a "thief in the night" (1 Thess. 5:2). They may also refer toMatthew 24:36 in which Jesus is quoted as saying:
"But concerning that day and hour no one knows, not even the angels of heaven, nor the Son, but the Father only."
In the New Testament, Jesus refers to this period preceding the end times as the "Great Tribulation" (Matthew 24:21), "Affliction" (Mark 13:19), and "days of vengeance" (Luke 21:22).
The Book of Matthew describes the devastation:
When ye therefore shall see theabomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet, stand in the holy place, (whoso readeth, let him understand). Then let them which be in Judaea flee into the mountains. Let him which is on the housetop not come down....Neither let him which is in the field return back to take his clothes, and woe unto them that are with child....For then shall be great tribulation, such as was not since the beginning of the world to this time, no, nor ever shall be. And except those days should be shortened, there should no flesh be saved: but for the elect's sake those days shall be shortened.
The resulting chaos will affect pregnancies, newborns, and a scourge will spread throughout the flesh, save for the elect. The vivid imagery of this section is repeated closely inMark 13:14–20.
The Gospel of Luke describes a complete unraveling of the social fabric, with widespread calamity and war:
Then he said to them, "Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be great earthquakes, and in various places famines and pestilences. And there will be terrors and great signs from heaven. But before all this they will lay their hands on you and persecute you, delivering you up to the synagogues and prisons, and you will be brought before kings and governors for my name's sake. This will be your opportunity to bear witness. Settle it therefore in your minds not to meditate beforehand how to answer, for I will give you a mouth and wisdom, which none of your adversaries will be able to withstand or contradict. You will be delivered up even by parents and brothers and relatives and friends, and some of you they will put to death. You will be hated by all for my name's sake. But not a hair of your head will perish. By your endurance you will gain your lives.
"But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that its desolation has come near. Then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains, and let those who are inside the city depart, and let not those who are out in the country enter it, for these are days of vengeance, to fulfill all that is written. Alas for women who are pregnant and for those who are nursing infants in those days! For there will be great distress upon the earth and wrath against this people. They will fall by the edge of the sword and be led captive among all nations, and Jerusalem will be trampled underfoot by the Gentiles, until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled.
"And there will be signs in sun and moon and stars, and on the earth distress of nations in perplexity because of the roaring of the sea and the waves, people fainting with fear and with foreboding of what is coming on the world. For the powers of the heavens will be shaken. And then they will see the Son of Man coming in a cloud with power and great glory. Now when these things begin to take place, straighten up and raise your heads, because your redemption is drawing near."
And he told them a parable: "Look at the fig tree, and all the trees. As soon as they come out in leaf, you see for yourselves and know that the summer is already near. So also, when you see these things taking place, you know that the kingdom of God is near. Truly, I say to you, this generation will not pass away until all has taken place. Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will not pass away."
Contemporary use of the termEnd Times has evolved from literal belief in Christian millennialism. In this tradition,Biblicalapocalypse is believed to be imminent, with various current events asomens of impendingArmageddon. These beliefs have been put forward by the Adventist movement (Millerites) anddispensational premillennialists. In 1918 a group of eight, well-known preachers produced theLondon Manifesto, warning of an imminent second coming of Christ shortly after the 1917 liberation of Jerusalem by the British.
Protestants are divided between Millennialists and Amillennialists. Millennialists concentrate on the issue of whether the true believers will see theGreat Tribulation or be removed from it by what is referred to as a Pre-Tribulationrapture.
Amillennialists believe the end times encompass the time from Christ's ascension to the last day, and maintain that the mention of the "thousand years" in theBook of Revelation is meant to be takenmetaphorically (i.e., not literally), a view which continues to cause divisions withinProtestant Christianity.
There is a range of eschatological belief in Protestant Christianity. Christianpremillennialists who believe the end times are occurring now, are usually specific about timelines that climax in the end of the world. For some, Israel, theEuropean Union, or the United Nations are seen as major players whose roles were foretold in scripture. Withindispensational premillennialist writing, there is the belief that Christians will be summoned toHeaven by Christ at therapture, occurring before a Great Tribulation prophesied in Matthew 24–25; Mark 13 and Luke 21. The Tribulation is described in the Book of Revelation.
"End times" may also refer to the passing of an age or long period in the relationship between man and God.[46] Adherents to this view cite theSecond Epistle to Timothy and draw analogies to the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.
Religious movements which expect that thesecond coming of Christ will be a cataclysmic event are generally calledadventism. These have arisen throughout the Christian era, but were particularly common after theProtestant Reformation.Emanuel Swedenborg considered the second coming to be symbolic, and to have occurred in 1757. Along with others, he developed a religious system around the second coming of Christ, disclosed by new prophecy or special revelation not described in the Bible. TheMillerites are diverse religious groups which similarly rely upon a special gift of interpretation for predicting the second coming.
The difference between the 19th-century Millerite and adventist movements and contemporary prophecy is thatWilliam Miller and his followers, based on biblical interpretation, predicted the time of the Second Coming to have occurred in 1844. Contemporary writing of end time has suggested the timetable will be triggered by future wars andmoral catastrophe, and that this time of tribulation is close at hand.
Seventh-day Adventists believe biblical prophecy to foretell an end time scenario in which the United States works in conjunction with the Catholic Church to mandate worship on a day other than the true Sabbath, Saturday, as prescribed in the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:8–11). This will bring about a situation where one must choose for or against the Bible as the will of God.[47]
Another view of theend times ispreterism. It distinguishesthe time of the end fromthe end of time. Preterists believe the termlast days (orTime of the End) refers to, neither the last days of the Earth, nor the last days of humankind, but the end of theOld Covenant betweenGod andIsrael; which, according to preterism, took place when theTemple inJerusalem was destroyed in 70CE.
Proponents offull preterism do not believe in a comingresurrection of the dead. They place this event (as well as the Second Coming) in the year 70. Advocates ofpartial preterism do believe in a coming resurrection. Full preterists contend that partial preterists are merelyfuturists, since they believe the Second Coming, the Resurrection, theRapture, and the Judgment are yet to come.
Many preterists believe first-centuryChristians experienced the Rapture to rejoin theChrist.
According with Preterism'sinterpretation of end times, many "time passages" in theNew Testament foretell aSecond Coming of Christ, with last days to take place within the lifetimes of his disciples:Matt. 10:23, Matt. 16:28, Matt. 24:34, Matt. 26:64,Rom. 13:11–12,1 Cor. 7:29–31, 1 Cor. 10:11,Phil. 4:5,James 5:8–9,1 Pet. 4:7,1 Jn. 2:18.
Dispensationalism is anevangelicalfuturist Biblical interpretation that foresees a series ofdispensations, or periods, in which God relates to human beings under differentBiblical covenants. The belief system is primarily rooted in the writings ofJohn Nelson Darby and ispremillennial in content. Thereestablishment of Israel in 1948 provided a major impetus to the dispensationalist belief system. The wars of Israel after 1948 with its Arab neighbors provided further support, according toJohn F. Walvoord.[48] After theSix-Day War in 1967, and theYom Kippur War in 1973, it seemed plausible to manyFundamentalist Christians in the 1970s that Middle East turmoil may well be leading up to the fulfillment of various Bible prophecies and to the Battle of Armageddon.
Members of the dispensationalist movement such asHal Lindsey,J. Dwight Pentecost,John Walvoord, all of whom haveDallas Theological Seminary backgrounds, and some other writers, claimed further that theEuropean Economic Community, which preceded theEuropean Union, would become aUnited States of Europe, which would in turn become a Revived Roman Empire ruled by theAntichrist. The Revived Roman Empire also figured into theNew Testament writers' vision of the future. The fact that in the early 1970s, there were (erroneously thought to be) seven nations in the European Economic Community was held to be significant; this aligned the Community with a seven-headed beast mentioned in Revelation. This specific prophecy has required revision, but the idea of a Revived Roman Empire remains.
Dispensationalism, in contrast to the Millerite Adventist movement, had its beginning in the 19th century, whenJohn Nelson Darby, founder of thePlymouth Brethrenreligious denomination, incorporated into his system of Biblical interpretation a system of organizing Biblical time into a number of discretedispensations, each of which marks a separatecovenant with God. Darby's beliefs were widely publicized inCyrus I. Scofield'sScofield Reference Bible, an annotated Bible that became popular in the United States.
Since the majority of the Biblical prophets were writing at a time when theTemple in Jerusalem was still functioning, they wrote as if it would still be standing during the prophesied events. According to preterism, this was a fulfillment of the prophecies. However, according toFuturists, their destruction in AD 70 put the prophetic timetable on hold. Many such believers therefore anticipated the return of Jews to Israel and thereconstruction of the Temple before the Second Coming could occur.[49][50]
A view of the Second Coming of Christ as held byposttribulational premillennialists holds that the Church of Christ will have to undergo great persecution by being present during the great tribulation.
Members of theBaháʼí Faith believe Miller's interpretation of signs and dates of the coming of Jesus were, for the most part, correct.[51] They believe the fulfillment of biblical prophecies of the coming of Christ came through a forerunner of their own religion, theBáb. According to the Báb's words, 4 April 1844 was "the first day that the Spirit descended" into his heart.[52] His subsequent declaration toMullá Husayn-i Bushru'i that he was the "Promised One"—an event now commemorated by Baháʼís as amajor holy day—took place on 23 May 1844. It was in October of that year that the Báb embarked on apilgrimage to Mecca, where he openly declared his claims to theSharif of Mecca.[53][54] The first news coverage of these events in the West was in 1845 byThe Times,[55] followed by others in 1850 in the United States.[56] The first Baháʼí to come to America was in 1892.[53] Several Baháʼí books and pamphlets make mention of the Millerites, the prophecies used by Miller and the Great Disappointment, most notablyWilliam Sears'sThief in the Night.[57][58][59]
End times theology is also significant torestorationist Christian religions, which consider themselves distinct from both Catholicism and Protestantism.
Former Watchtower headquarters inBrooklyn. The society made a number of emphatic claims of impending last days and ensuing chaos between 1879 and 1924.
The eschatology ofJehovah's Witnesses is central to their religious beliefs. They believeJesus Christ has been ruling in heaven as king since 1914 (a date they believe was prophesied in the Bible) and that after that time a period of cleansing occurred, resulting in God's selection of theBible Students associated withCharles Taze Russell as his people in 1919. They also believe that the destruction of those who reject the Bible's message[60] and thus willfully refuse to obey God[61][62] will shortly take place atArmageddon, ensuring that the beginning of the new earthly society will be composed of willing subjects of that kingdom.
The religion's doctrines surrounding 1914 are the legacy of a series of emphatic claims regarding the years 1799,[63] 1874,[63] 1878,[64] 1914,[65] 1918[66] and 1925[67] made in theWatch Tower Society's publications between 1879 and 1924. Claims about the significance of those years, including the presence of Jesus Christ, the beginning of the "last days", the destruction of worldly governments and the earthly resurrection of Jewish patriarchs, were successively abandoned.[68] In 1922 the society's principal magazine,The Watchtower, described its chronology as "no stronger than its weakest link", but also claimed the chronological relationships to be "of divine origin and divinely corroborated... in a class by itself, absolutely and unqualifiedly correct"[69] and "indisputable facts",[63] and repudiation of Russell's teachings was described as "equivalent to a repudiation of the Lord".[70]
The Watch Tower Society has acknowledged its early leaders promoted "incomplete, even inaccurate concepts".[71] TheGoverning Body of Jehovah's Witnesses says that, unlikeOld Testamentprophets, its interpretations of the Bible are notinspired orinfallible.[72][73][74] It says that Bible prophecies can be fully understood only after their fulfillment, citing examples of biblical figures who did not understand the meaning of prophecies they received. Watch Tower Society literature often cites Proverbs 4:18, "The path of the righteous ones is like the bright light that is getting lighter and lighter until the day is firmly established" (NWT) to support their view that there would be an increase in knowledge during "the time of the end", and that this increase in knowledge needs adjustments. Watch Tower Society publications also say that unfulfilled expectations are partly due to eagerness forGod's Kingdom and that they do not calltheir core beliefs into question.[75][76][77]
Members ofthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believe there will be a Second Coming of Jesus to the earth at some time in the future. The LDS Church and its leaders do not make any predictions of the date of the Second Coming.
According to church doctrine, the truegospel will be taught in all parts of the world prior to the Second Coming.[78] They also believe there will be increasing war, wickedness, earthquakes, hurricanes, and man-made disasters prior to the Second Coming.[79] Disasters of all kind will happen before Christ comes.[80] Upon the return of Jesus Christ, all people will be resurrected, the righteous in a first resurrection and the unrighteous in a second, later resurrection. Christ shall reign for a period of 1000 years, after which the Final Judgment will occur.
Sunnis believe the dead will then stand in a grand assembly, awaiting a scroll detailing their righteous deeds, sinful acts and ultimate judgment.[note 1][87] Muhammad will be the first to be resurrected.[88] Punishments will includeadhab, or severe pain and embarrassment, andkhizy or shame.[89] There will also be a punishment of the grave between death and the resurrection.[90] Several Sunni scholars explain some of the signs metaphorically.
The signs of the coming end time are divided intomajor and minor signs:Following the second period, the third is said to be marked by the ten major signs known asalamatu's-sa'ah al- kubra (The major signs of the end).[note 2] They are as follows:
A huge black cloud of smoke (dukhan) will cover the earth.[note 3]
Three sinkings of the earth, one in the East.[note 3]
The false messiah—anti-Christ,Masih ad-Dajjal—shall appear with great powers as a one-eyed man with his right eye blind and deformed like a grape. Although believers will not be deceived, he will claim to be God, to hold the keys to heaven and hell, and will lead many astray.[91] In reality, his heaven is hell, and his hell is heaven. The Dajjal will be followed by seventy thousand Jews of Isfahan wearing Persian shawls.[note 4]
Thereturn ofIsa (Jesus), from the fourth sky, to kill Dajjal.[92]
Ya'jooj andMa'jooj (Gog and Magog), a Japhetic tribe of vicious beings who had been imprisoned byDhul-Qarnayn, will break out. They will ravage the earth, drink all the water ofLake Tiberias, and kill all believers in their way. Isa,Imam Al-Mahdi, and the believers with them will go to the top of a mountain and pray for the destruction of Gog and Magog. God eventually will send disease and worms to wipe them out.[note 5][93]
The second blow of the trumpet will be sounded, the dead will return to life, and a fire will come out ofYemen that shall gather all to Mahshar Al Qiy'amah (The Gathering for Judgment).[97]
Many of the signs shown above are shared by both Sunni and Shia beliefs, with some exceptions, e.g.Imam Al-Mahdi defeatingAl-Masih ad-Dajjal.
Concepts and terminology inShia eschatology includeMi'ad, theOccultation,Al-Yamani, andSufyani. InTwelver Shianarrations about the last days, the literature largely revolves aroundMuhammad al-Mahdi, who is considered by many beliefs to be the true twelfth appointed successor to Muhammad. Muhammad al-Mahdi will help mankind against the deception by theDajjal who will try to get people in to a new world religion which is called "the great deception".[98][need quotation to verify]
Ahmadiyya is considered distinct from mainstream Islam. In its writing, the present age has been witness to the evil of man and wrath of God, with war and natural disaster.[99]Ghulam Ahmad is seen as thepromised Messiah and theMahdi, fulfilling Islamic and Biblical prophecies, as well as scriptures of other religions such as Hinduism. His teaching will establish spiritual reform and establish an age of peace. This will continue for a thousand years, and will unify mankind under one faith.[100]
Ahmadis believe that despite harsh and strong opposition and discrimination they will eventually be triumphant and their message vindicated both by Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Ahmadis also incorporate the eschatological views from other religions into their doctrine and believe Mirza Ghulam Ahmed falls into this sequence.[101]
In theBaháʼí Faith, creation has neither a beginning nor an end;[102] Baháʼís regard the eschatologies of other religions as symbolic. In Baháʼí belief, human time is marked by a series ofprogressive revelations in which successivemessengers or prophets come from God.[103] The coming of each of these messengers is seen as the day of judgment to the adherents of the previous religion, who may choose to accept the new messenger and enter the "heaven" of belief, or denounce the new messenger and enter the "hell" of denial. In this view, the terms "heaven" and "hell" become symbolic terms for a person's spiritual progress and their nearness to or distance from God.[103] In Baháʼí belief,Bahá'u'lláh (1817–1892), the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, was theSecond Coming of Christ and also the fulfilment of previous eschatological expectations ofIslam and other major religions.[104]
The inception of the Baháʼí Faith coincides withGreat Disappointment of the Millerite prophecy in 1844.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá taught that Armageddon would begin in 1914,[105] but without a clear indication of its end date.[106] Baháʼís believe that the mass martyrdom anticipated during theEnd Times had already passed within thehistorical context of the Baháʼí Faith.[107][108] Baháʼís expect their faith to be eventually embraced by the masses of the world, ushering in agolden age.
Rastafari have a unique interpretation of end times, based on theOld Testament and theBook of Revelation. They believeEthiopian EmperorHaile Selassie I to be Godincarnate, theKing of kings andLord of lords mentioned in Revelation 5:5. They saw the crowning of Selassie as thesecond coming, and theSecond Italo-Ethiopian War as fulfillment of Revelation. There is also the expectation that Selassie will return for a day of judgment and bring home the "lost children of Israel", which in Rastafari refers to those taken from Africa through theslave trade. There will then be an era of peace and harmony at MountZion in Africa.[109]
TheVaishnavite tradition links contemporary Hindu eschatology to the figure ofKalki, the tenth and lastavatar ofVishnu. Many Hindus believe that beforethe age draws to a close, Kalki will reincarnate asShiva and simultaneously dissolve and regenerate the universe.Shaivites hold the view that Shiva is incessantly destroying and creating the world.[110]
InHindu eschatology, time is cyclic and consists ofkalpas. Each lasts 4.1–8.2 billion years, which is a period of one full day and night forBrahma, who will be alive for 311 trillion, 40 billion years. Within akalpa there are periods ofcreation,preservation anddecline. After this larger cycle, all of creation will contract to asingularity[citation needed] and then again will expand from that single point, as theages continue in a religiousfractal pattern.[86][need quotation to verify]
Within the current kalpa, there are four epochs that encompass the cycle. They progress from a beginning of complete purity to a descent into total corruption. The last of the four ages isKali Yuga (which most Hindus believe is the current time), characterized by quarrel, hypocrisy, impiety, violence and decay. The four pillars of dharma will be reduced to one, with truth being all that remains.[111] As written in theGita:[112]
Yadā yadā hi dharmasya glānirbhavati Bhārata Abhyutthānam adharmasya tadātmānam sṛjāmyaham
O descendant of Bharata, whenever there is a decline of religion and an increase in irreligion, at that time I manifest My eternally perfect form in this mundane world.
At this time of chaos, the final avatar,Kalki, endowed with eight superhuman faculties will appear on a white horse. Kalki will amass an army to "establish righteousness upon the earth" and leave "the minds of the people as pure as crystal."
At the completion ofKali Yuga, the nextYuga Cycle will begin with a newSatya Yuga, in which all will once again be righteous with the reestablishment of dharma. This, in turn, will be followed by epochs ofTreta Yuga,Dvapara Yuga and again another Kali Yuga. This cycle will then repeat until the larger cycle of existence underBrahma returns to thesingularity,[citation needed] and a new universe is born.[109]The cycle ofbirth,growth,decay, and renewal at the individual level finds its echo in the cosmic order, yet is affected by vagueries of divine intervention in Vaishnavite belief.
There is no classic account of beginning or end[113]in Buddhism; Masao Abe attributes this to the absence of God.[114]
History is embedded in the continuing process ofsamsara or the "beginningless and endless cycles of birth-death-rebirth".[115] Buddhists believe there is an end to things[116] but it is not final because they are bound to be born again. However, the writers ofMahayana Buddhist scriptures establish a specific end-time account in Buddhist tradition: this describes the return ofMaitreya Buddha, who would bring about an end to the world.[117] This constitutes one of the two major branches of Buddhist eschatology, with the other being theSermon of the Seven Suns. End time in Buddhism could also involve a cultural eschatology covering "final things", which include the idea thatSakyamuni Buddha'sdharma will also come to an end.[118]
The Buddha described his teachings disappearing five thousand years from when he preached them,[119] corresponding approximately to the year 4300 since he was born in 623 BCE.[120] At this time, knowledge of dharma will be lost as well. The last of his relics will be gathered in Bodh Gaya and cremated.[citation needed] There will be a new era in which the next Buddha Maitreya will appear, but it will be preceded by the degeneration of human society. This will be a period of greed, lust, poverty, ill will, violence, murder, impiety, physical weakness, sexual depravity and societal collapse, and even the Buddha himself will be forgotten.[86]
This will be followed by the coming of Maitreya when the teachings ofdharma are forgotten. Maitreya was the first Bodhisattva around whom a cult developed, in approximately the third century CE.[121]
The earliest known mention of Maitreya occurs in the Cakkavatti, or Sihanada Sutta inDigha Nikaya 26 of thePali Canon. In it,Gautama Buddha predicted his teachings of dharma would be forgotten after 5,000 years.
At that period, brethren, there will arise in the world an Exalted One named Maitreya, Fully Awakened, abounding in wisdom and goodness, happy, with knowledge of the worlds, unsurpassed as a guide to mortals willing to be led, a teacher for gods and men, an Exalted One, a Buddha, even as I am now. He, by himself, will thoroughly know and see, as it were face to face, this universe, with Its worlds of the spirits, Its Brahmas and Its Maras, and Its world of recluses and Brahmins, of princes and peoples, even as I now, by myself, thoroughly know and see them.
— Digha Nikaya, 26
The text then foretells the birth of Maitreya Buddha in the city ofKetumatī in present-dayBenares, whose king will be the Cakkavattī Sankha. Sankha will live in the former palace of King Mahāpanadā, and will become a renunciate who follows Maitreya.[122][123]
In Mahayana Buddhism, Maitreya will attainbodhi in seven days, the minimum period, by virtue of his many lifetimes of preparation. Once Buddha, he will rule over the Ketumati Pure Land, an earthly paradise sometimes associated with the Indian city ofVaranasi or Benares in present-dayUttar Pradesh. In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha presides over a land of purity. For example,Amitabha presides over Sukhavati, more popularly known as the "Western Paradise".[124]
A notable teaching he will rediscover is that of the ten non-virtuous deeds—killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, abusive speech, idle speech, covetousness, harmful intent and wrong views. The ten virtuous deeds will replace them with the abandonment of each of these practices.Edward Conze in hisBuddhist Scriptures (1959) gives an account of Maitreya:
The Lord replied, 'Maitreya, the best of men, will then leave theTuṣita heavens and go for his last rebirth. As soon as he is born he will walk seven steps forward, and where he puts down his feet a jewel or a lotus will spring up. He will raise his eyes to the ten directions and will speak these words: "This is my last birth. There will be no rebirth after this one. Never will I come back here, but, all pure, I shall win Nirvana."'
Maitreya currently resides inTushita, but will come toJambudvipa when needed most as successor to the historicŚākyamuni Buddha. Maitreya will achieve complete enlightenment during his lifetime, and following this reawakening he will bring back the timeless teaching ofdharma to this plane and rediscoverenlightenment.[126] TheArya Maitreya Mandala, founded in 1933 byLama Anagarika Govinda, is based on the idea of Maitreya.
Maitreya eschatology forms the central canon of theWhite Lotus Society, a religious and political movement which emerged inYuan China.[127] It later branched into the Chinese undergroundcriminal organization known as theTriads, which exist today as an international underground criminal network.[citation needed]
Note that no description of Maitreya occurs in any other sutta in the canon, casting doubt as to the authenticity of the scripture. In addition, sermons of the Buddha normally are in response to a question, or in a specific context, but this sutta has a beginning and an ending, and its content is quite different from the others. This has led some to conclude that the whole sutta isapocryphal, or tampered with.[126]
In his "Sermon of the Seven Suns" in thePali Canon, the Buddha describes the ultimate fate of theEarth in an apocalypse characterized by the consequent appearance of sevensuns in the sky, each causing progressive ruin until the planet is destroyed:
All things are impermanent, all aspects of existence are unstable and non-eternal. Beings will become so weary and disgusted with the constituent things that they will seek emancipation from them more quickly. There will come a season, O monks when, after hundreds of thousands of years, rains will cease. All seedlings, all vegetation, all plants, grasses and trees will dry up and cease to be....There comes another season after a great lapse of time when a second sun will appear. Now all brooks and ponds will dry up, vanish, cease to be.
The canon goes on to describe the progressive destruction of each sun. The third sun will dry theGanges River and other rivers, whilst the fourth will cause the lakes to evaporate; the fifth will dry the oceans. Later:
Again after a vast period of time a sixth sun will appear, and it will bake the Earth even as a pot is baked by a potter. All the mountains will reek and send up clouds of smoke. After another great interval a seventh sun will appear and the Earth will blaze with fire until it becomes one mass of flame. The mountains will be consumed, a spark will be carried on the wind and go to the worlds of God....Thus, monks, all things will burn, perish and exist no more except those who have seen the path.
The sermon completes with the Earth immersed into an extensive holocaust. The Pali Canon does not indicate when this will happen relative to Maitreya.[86]
Ragnarök afterSurtr has engulfed the world with fire
Norse mythology depicts the end of days asRagnarök, anOld Norse term translatable as "twilight of the gods". It will be heralded by a devastation known asFimbulvetr which will seizeMidgard in cold and darkness. The sun and moon will disappear from the sky, and poison will fill the air. The dead will rise from the ground and there will be widespread despair.
Then there will be a battle between—on the one hand—the Gods with theÆsir,Vanir[128] andEinherjar, led byOdin, and—on the other hand—forces of Chaos, including the fire giants andjötunn, led byLoki. In the fighting Odin will be swallowed whole by his old nemesisFenrir.[129] The godFreyr fightsSurtr but loses.Víðarr, son of Odin, will then avenge his father by ripping Fenrir's jaws apart and stabbing the wolf in the heart with his spear. The serpentJörmungandr will open its gaping maw and be met in combat byThor. Thor, also a son of Odin, will defeat the serpent, only to take nine steps afterwards before collapsing in his own death.[130]
After this people will flee their homes as the sun blackens and the earth sinks into the sea. The stars will vanish, steam will rise, and flames will touch the heavens. This conflict will result in the deaths of most of the major Gods and forces of Chaos. Finally, Surtr will fling fire across the nine worlds. The ocean will then completely submergeMidgard.[131]
After thecataclysm, the world will resurface new and fertile, and the surviving Gods will meet.Baldr, another son of Odin, will be reborn in the new world, according toVöluspá. The two human survivors,Líf and Lífþrasir, will then repopulate this new earth.[132]
Egyptian texts typically treat the dissolution of the world as a possibility to be avoided, and for that reason they do not often describe it in detail. However, many texts allude to the idea that the world, after countless cycles of renewal, is destined to end. This end is described in a passage in theCoffin Texts and a more explicit one in theBook of the Dead, in which Atum says that he will one day dissolve the ordered world and return to his primeval, inert state within the waters of chaos. All things other than the creator will cease to exist, except Osiris, who will survive along with him.[133] Details about thiseschathological prospect are left unclear, including the fate of the dead who are associated with Osiris.[134] Yet with the creator god and the god of renewal together in the waters that gave rise to the orderly world, there is the potential for a new creation to arise in the same manner as the old.[135]
The Taoist faith is not concerned with what came before or after life, knowing only their own being in the Tao. The philosophy is that people come and go, just like mountains, trees and stars, but Tao will go on fortime immemorial.[citation needed]
Researchers infutures studies andtranshumanists investigate how the accelerating rate of scientific progress may lead to a "technological singularity" in the future that would profoundly and unpredictably change the course of human history, and result inHomo sapiens no longer being the dominant life form on Earth.[136][137][improper synthesis?]
Occasionally the term "physical eschatology" is applied to the long-term predictions of astrophysics about thefuture of Earth andultimate fate of the universe.[138][139] In approximately 6 billion years, theSun will turn into ared giant. Life on Earth will become impossible due to a rise in temperature long before the planet is possibly actually swallowed up by the Sun or left charred.[140] Later, the Sun will become awhite dwarf.
^Bauckham, R. J. (1996). "Apocalyptic". In D. R. W. Wood, I. H. Marshall, A. R. Millard, J. I. Packer, & D. J. Wiseman (Eds.),New Bible Dictionary (3rd ed., p. 53). Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
^Tyndale, William,Parable of the Wicked Mammon, c. 1526, (facsimile copy of later printing, no ISBN, Benediction Classics, 2008), pp. 4–5.
^Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition). Chapter 1. The quest of the historical Jesus. pp. 1–15.
^Ehrman, Bart.Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium. Oxford. 1999. p. 127.
^Allison, Dale (2025).Interpreting Jesus. Eerdmans. pp. 60–71, 92.ISBN978-0802879196.
^Geddert, T. J. (1992). "Apocalyptic Teaching". In Green, Joel B.; McKnight, Scot; Marshall, I. Howard (eds.).Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press.ISBN978-0-8308-1777-1.
^R. T. France, The Gospel of Mark, New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002), 541–543
^N. T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996), pp. 329–365
^N.T. Wright Hope Deferred? Against the Dogma of Delay. Early Christianity 2018. Oft-cited are examples in theOld Testament where language of cosmic destruction is used for political catastrophes, such as in Ezek. 32:8; Amos 8:9; Zeph. 1:15.
^Hogeterp, Albert L. A. (2009).Expectations of the End: A Comparative Traditio-Historical Study of Eschatological, Apocalyptic, and Messianic Ideas in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament. Boston, Massachusetts: Brill.ISBN978-90-04-17177-0.
^Familiar Stranger: An Introduction to Jesus of Nazareth by Michael James McClymond (2004) pp. 77–79
^Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research by Bruce Chilton and Craig A. Evans (1998) pp. 255–257
^Motlagh, Hushidar Hugh (1992).I Shall Come Again (The Great Disappointment ed.). Mt. Pleasant, MI: Global Perspective. pp. 205–213.ISBN0-937661-01-5.
^"The House-to-House Ministry—Why Important Now?".The Watchtower. 15 July 2008. pp. 5–6.
^You Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1989, p. 155.
^Revelation—Its Grand Climax at Hand!, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1988, p. 6.
^abcThe Watchtower, 1 March 1922, page 73, "The indisputable facts, therefore, show that the 'time of the end' began in 1799; that the Lord's second presence began in 1874."
^"Our Faith"(PDF).The Herald of the Morning. September 1875. p. 52. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 12 May 2008.
^The Watchtower,July 15, 1894, p. 1677Archived April 1, 2019, at theWayback Machine: "We see no reason for changing the figures—nor could we change them if we would. They are, we believe, God's dates, not ours. But bear in mind that the end of 1914 is not the date for the beginning, but for the end of the time of trouble."
^Millions Now Living Will Never Die, 1920, page 97, "Based upon the argument heretofore set forth, then, that the old order of things, the old world, is ending and is therefore passing away, and that the new order is coming in, and that 1925 shall mark the resurrection of the faithful worthies of old and the beginning of reconstruction, it is reasonable to conclude that millions of people now on the earth will be still on the earth in 1925. Then, based upon the promises set forth in the divine Word, we must reach the positive and indisputable conclusion that millions now living will never die."
^"The Strong Cable of Chronology",Watch Tower, 15 July 1922, page 217, "The chronology of present truth is, to begin with, a string of dates... Thus far it is a chain, and no stronger than its weakest link. There exist, however, well established relationships among the dates of present-truth chronology. These internal connections of the dates impart a much greater strength than can be found in other [secular, archeological] chronologies. Some of them are of so remarkable a character as clearly to indicate this chronology is not of man, but of God. Being of divine origin and divinely corroborated, present-truth chronology stands in a class by itself, absolutely and unqualifiedly correct."
^The Watchtower, 1 May 1922, page 132, "To abandon or repudiate the Lord's chosen instrument means to abandon or repudiate the Lord himself, upon the principle that he who rejects the servant sent by the Master thereby rejects the Master.... Brother Russell was the Lord's servant. Then to repudiate him and his work is equivalent to a repudiation of the Lord, upon the principle heretofore announced."
^Revelation – Its Grand Climax, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1988, page 9.
^"False Prophets".Reasoning From the Scriptures. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. p.137:Have not Jehovah's Witnesses made errors in their teachings?.
^"To Whom Shall We Go but Jesus Christ?".Watchtower. 1 March 1979. p. 23.the "faithful and discreet slave" has alerted all of God's people to the sign of the times indicating the nearness of God's Kingdom rule. In this regard, however, it must be observed that this "faithful and discreet slave" was never inspired, never perfect. Those writings by certain members of the "slave" class that came to form the Christian part of God's Word were inspired and infallible [the bible], but that is not true of other writings since.
^Why have there been changes over the years in the teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses?,"Jehovah's Witnesses",Reasoning From the Scriptures, 1989, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, page 205
^"Allow No Place for the Devil!",The Watchtower, 15 March 1986, page 19
^"Keep in Step With Jehovah's Organization",Watchtower, 15 January 2001, page 18.
^Muhammad, S. Umar (1999). "Muslims' Eschatological Discourses on Colonialism in Northern Nigeria".Journal of the American Academy of Religion.67 (1). Oxford University Press:59–84.doi:10.1093/jaarel/67.1.59.JSTOR1466033.
^Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-512558-4, p.264
^"Reward and Punishment",Encyclopedia of the Qur'an(2005)
^'Abdu'l-Baha (1959).Tablets of the Divine Plan (First written Apr 1, 1916 ed.). Wilmette, Illinois: Baha'i Publishing Trust. p. 45 (Western States, Msg #1).
^Universal House of Justice (October 1985).The Promise of World Peace. Haifa, Israel: Baha'i World Center. p. 1.ISBN085398-216-3.
^Abe, Masao (1985). "Buddhist Nirvana – Its Significance in Contemporary Thought and Life". In LaFleur, William R. (ed.).Zen and Western Thought. Library of Philosophy and Religion (reprint ed.). Basingstoke: Macmillan. p. 214.ISBN9781349069941. Retrieved7 July 2019.Since there is no God in Buddhism, there is no creation or last judgment, but rather Emptiness. Thus, for Buddhism, history has neither beginning nor end.
Carroll, John T. (2000)."Eschatology". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.).Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans.ISBN978-9053565032.
Dunand, Françoise; Zivie-Coche, Christiane (2004) [French edition 1991].Gods and Men in Egypt: 3000 BCE to 395 CE. Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press.ISBN0-8014-8853-2.
Hornung, Erik (1982) [German edition 1971].Conceptions of God in Egypt: The One and the Many. Translated by John Baines. Cornell University Press.ISBN0-8014-1223-4.
Meeks, Dimitri; Favard-Meeks, Christine (1996) [French edition 1993].Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods. Translated by G. M. Goshgarian. Cornell University Press.ISBN0-8014-8248-8.
Robert Sungenis, Scott Temple, David Allen Lewis,Shock Wave 2000! subtitledTheHarold Camping 1994 Debacle, New Leaf Press, Inc. 2004,ISBN0-89221-269-1.
Stephen Travis,Christ Will Come Again: Hope for the Second Coming of Jesus, Toronto: Clements Publishing 2004.ISBN1-894667-33-6.
Jerry L. Walls (ed.),The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology, New York: Oxford University Press 2008.ISBN978-0-19-973588-4.
.jpg)
.jpg)
