Eric Voegelin | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Born | Erich Hermann Wilhelm Vögelin (1901-01-03)January 3, 1901 |
| Died | January 19, 1985(1985-01-19) (aged 84) Stanford, California, U.S. |
| Alma mater | University of Vienna |
| Era | 20th-century philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| School | Perennial philosophy[1] |
| Doctoral advisor | Hans Kelsen[2] |
Main interests | |
Notable ideas |
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Eric Voegelin (bornErich Hermann Wilhelm Vögelin,German:[ˈføːgəliːn]; January 3, 1901 – January 19, 1985) was a German-Americanpolitical philosopher. He was born inCologne, and educated in political science at theUniversity of Vienna, where he became an associate professor ofpolitical science in the law faculty. In 1938, he and his wife fled from the Nazi forces which had enteredVienna. They emigrated to the United States, where they became citizens in 1944. He spent most of his academic career atLouisiana State University, theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich and theHoover Institution ofStanford University.
Voegelin was born inCologne on January 3, 1901. His parents moved to Vienna in 1910, and he eventually studied at theUniversity of Vienna. The advisers on his dissertation wereHans Kelsen andOthmar Spann. After hishabilitation there in 1928, he taughtpolitical theory andsociology. In Austria, Voegelin began lasting friendships withAlfred Schütz[4] and withFriedrich Hayek.[5]
As a result of theAnschluss in 1938, Voegelin was fired from his job. Narrowly avoiding arrest by theGestapo and after a brief stay inSwitzerland, he arrived in the United States. He taught at various universities before he joinedLouisiana State University's Department of Government in 1942. Voegelin remained inBaton Rouge until 1958, when he accepted an offer byMunich'sLudwig Maximilian University of Munich to fillMax Weber's former chair inpolitical science, which had been unoccupied since Weber's death in 1920. In Munich, he founded theInstitut für Politische Wissenschaft. Voegelin returned to the United States in 1969 to joinStanford University'sHoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace as Henry Salvatori Fellow. There he continued his work until his death. He was a member of thePhiladelphia Society.[6]
Although some have found his books obscure, according to his studentEllis Sandoz, he was a "wonderfully lucid lecturer with the gift of explaining with complete intelligibility the most abstruse theories to the comprehension and fascination" of his students.[7]
In his later life Voegelin worked to account for the endemicpolitical violence of the twentieth century, in an effort variously referred to as aphilosophy of politics, history, orconsciousness. In Voegelin'sWeltanschauung, he "blamed a flawed utopian interpretation of Christianity for spawning totalitarian movements like Nazism and Communism."[8] Voegelin eschewed any ideological labels or categorizations that readers and followers attempted to impose on his work. Nevertheless, his work came to the forefront during theCold War and was adopted mainly byconservatives.
Voegelin published scores of books, essays, and reviews in his lifetime. An early work wasDie politischen Religionen (1938;The Political Religions), on totalitarian ideologies aspolitical religions due to their structural similarities toreligion. He wrote the multi-volume (English-language)Order and History, which began publication in 1956 and remained incomplete at the time of his death 29 years later. His 1951 Charles Walgreen lectures, published asThe New Science of Politics, is sometimes seen as a prolegomenon to this series, and remains his best known work. He left many manuscripts unpublished, including a history of political ideas, which has since been published in eight volumes.
Order and History was originally conceived as a five-volume examination of the history of order occasioned by Voegelin's personal experience of the disorder of his time. The first three volumes,Israel and Revelation,The World of the Polis, andPlato and Aristotle, appeared in rapid succession in 1956 and 1957 and focused on the evocations of order in the ancientNear East and Greece.
Voegelin then encountered difficulties which slowed down the publication. This, combined with his university administrative duties and work related to the new institute, meant that seventeen years separated the fourth from the third volume. His new concerns were indicated in the 1966 German collection Anamnesis:Zur Theorie der Geschichte und Politik. The fourth volume,The Ecumenic Age, appeared in 1974. It broke with the chronological pattern of the previous volumes by investigating symbolizations of order ranging in time from theSumerian King List toHegel. Work on the final volume,In Search of Order, occupied Voegelin's final days and it was published posthumously in 1987.[original research?]
One of Voegelin's main points in his later work is that our experience of transcendence conveys a sense of order. Although transcendence can never be fully defined or described, it may be conveyed in symbols. A particular sense of transcendent order serves as a basis for a particular political order. A philosophy of consciousness can therefore become a philosophy of politics. Insights may become fossilised as dogma.
Voegelin is more interested in theontological issues that arise from these experiences than the epistemological questions of how we know that a vision of order is true or not. For Voegelin, the essence of truth is trust. All philosophy begins with experience of the divine. Since God is experienced as good, one can be confident that reality is knowable. Given the possibility of knowledge, Voegelin holds there are two modes: intentionality and luminosity. Visions of order belong to the latter category. The truth of any vision is confirmed by its orthodoxy, by what Voegelin jokingly calls its lack of originality.
Voegelin's work does not fit in any standard classifications, although some of his readers[who?] have found similarities in it to contemporaneous works by, for example,Hans Jonas,Ernst Cassirer,Martin Heidegger, andHans-Georg Gadamer. Voegelin often invents terms or uses old ones in new ways. However, there are patterns in his work with which the reader can quickly become familiar.
According to Ellis Sandoz, Voegelin may well be America's leading philosopher, and is rightly compared with the premier minds of our century and, perhaps, of the millennia.[7]Thomas Altizer has said thatOrder and History "may someday be perceived as the most important work of Old Testament scholarship ever written in the United States," adding that it is noteworthy that it was written by a political scientist and philosopher.[9]
Among indications of growing engagement with Voegelin's work are the 305 page international bibliography published in 2000 by Munich'sWilhelm Fink Verlag; the presence of dedicated research centers at universities in the United States, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom; the appearance of recent translations in languages ranging from Portuguese to Japanese; and the publishing of a 34 volume collection of his primary works by theUniversity of Missouri Press and various primary and secondary works offered by theEric-Voegelin-Archiv ofLudwig-Maximilians-Universität.
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In hisThe New Science of Politics,Order and History, andScience, Politics and Gnosticism, Voegelin opposed what he believed to be unsoundGnostic influences in politics.
Eugene Webb stated that Voegelin understood "gnosis" as
a purported direct, immediate apprehension or vision of truth without the need for critical reflection; the special gift of a spiritual and cognitive elite[10]
and "gnosticism" as
A type of thinking that claims absolute cognitive mastery of reality. Relying as it does on a claim to gnosis, gnosticism considers its knowledge not subject to criticism. Gnosticism may take transcendentalizing (as in the case of the Gnostic movement of late antiquity) or immanentizing forms (as in the case of Marxism).[11]
Accordingly, Voegelin distinguished between ancient and modern gnosticisms: whereas the former soughtsalvation in a realm transcending the actual world, the "modern" form aimed to change it immanently (see below).
Apart from the Classical Christian writers against heresy, his sources on Gnosticism weresecondary since the texts of theNag Hammadi library were not yet widely available. For example, Voegelin usedHans Urs von Balthasar,Henri de Lubac, andHans Jonas.[12]
Voegelin perceived similarities between ancient Gnosticism andmodernist political theories, particularlyCommunism andNazism. He identified the root of the Gnostic impulse asalienation, that is, a sense of disconnection from society and a belief that this lack is the result of the inherent disorder, or even evil, of the world. That alienation has two effects:
According to Voegelin, the Gnostics really reject the Christianeschaton of the kingdom of God and replace it with a human form of salvation through esoteric ritual or practice.[citation needed]
The primary feature that characterizes a tendency as gnostic for Voegelin is that it is motivated by the notion that the world and humanity can be fundamentally transformed and perfected through the intervention of a chosen group of people (an elite), a man-god, or men-Gods. TheÜbermensch is the chosen one who has a kind of special knowledge (like magic or science) about how to perfect human existence.[citation needed]
That stands in contrast to a notion of redemption that is achieved through the reconciliation of mankind with the divine.Marxism, therefore, qualifies as "gnostic" because it purports that the perfect society on earth can be established once capitalism has been overthrown by the proletariat. Likewise, Nazism is seen as "gnostic" because it posits that utopia can be achieved by attaining racial purity once the master race has freed itself of the racially inferior and the degenerate.[citation needed]
In both cases specifically analyzed by Voegelin, the totalitarian impulse is derived from the alienation of the individuals from the rest of society. That leads to a desire to dominate (libido dominandi), which has its roots in the Gnostic's conviction of the imperative of his vision but also in his lack of concord with a large body of his society. As a result, there is very little regard for the welfare of those who are harmed by the resulting politics, which ranges from coercive to calamitous (such as the English proverb: "You have to crack a few eggs to make an omelet" or its Russian variety: "When you chop wood, chips fly").[citation needed]
One of his most quoted passages (by such figures asWilliam F. Buckley Jr.)[13] is:
The problem of aneidos in history, hence, arises only when a Christiantranscendental fulfillment becomes immanentized. Such an immanentisthypostasis of theeschaton, however, is a theoretical fallacy.[14]
From this comes thecatchphrase: "Don'timmanentize the eschaton!", which simply means: "Do not try to make that which belongs to the afterlife happen here and now" or "Don't try to create Heaven on Earth."
When Voegelin uses the termgnosis negatively, it is to reflect the word as found in theManichaeism andValentinianism of antiquity. As it is later then immanentized (or manifest) in modernity in the wake ofJoachim of Fiore and in the various ideological movements outlined in his works.[15] Voegelin also builds on the term "Gnosticism" as it is defined byHans Jonas in hisThe Gnostic Religion, in reference toHeidegger's Gnosticism, which is to have an understanding and control over reality that makes mankind as powerful as the role of God in reality.
Voegelin was arguing from a Hellenistic position that goodgnosis is derived frompistis (faith) and that the pagan tradition made a false distinction between faith andnoesis. Furthermore, the dualist perspective was the very essence of gnosticism via the misuse ofnoema and caused a destructive division between the internal and external world in humanconsciousness. To reconcile the internal (subjective) and external (objective) world of consciousness was the restoration of order.[16][17]
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Voegelin's work does not lay out a program of reform or offer a doctrine of recovery from what he termed the "demono-maniacal" in modern politics. However, interspersed in his writings is the idea of a spiritual recovery of the primary experiences of divine order. He was not interested so much in what religious dogmas might result in personal salvation but rather a recovery of the human in the classical sense of thedaimonios aner (Plato's term for "the spiritual man"). He did not speculate on the institutional forms in which a spiritual recovery might take place but expressed confidence that the current 500-year cycle of secularism would come to an end because he stated that "you cannot deny the human forever."[citation needed]
In an essay published in 1965,[18] Voegelin suggested that the Soviet Union would collapse from within because of its historical roots in philosophy and Christianity. Later, at an informal talk given at University College, Dublin, Ireland in 1972,[19] Voegelin suggested the Soviet Union might collapse by 1980 because of its failure to succeed in its domestic commitments and external political challenges.
Eugene Webb criticized Voegelin's conception ofgnosis and his analysis of Gnosticism in general. In the article "Voegelin's Gnosticism Reconsidered," Webb explained that Voegelin's concept of Gnosticism was conceived "not primarily to describe ancient phenomena but to help us understand some modern ones for which the evidence is a great deal clearer."[20][page needed] Webb continues, "the category (of Gnosticism) is of limited usefulness for the purpose to which he put it… and the fact that the idea of Gnosticism as such has become so problematic and complex in recent years must at the very least undercut Voegelin's effort to trace a historical line of descent from ancient sources to the modern phenomena he tried to use them to illuminate."[20][page needed]
Because Voegelin applied the concept of gnosis to a wide array of ideologies and movements such as Marxism, communism, National Socialism, progressivism, liberalism, and humanism,[21] critics have proposed that Voegelin's concept of Gnosis lacks theoretical precision.[22][23] Therefore, Voegelin'sgnosis can, according to the critics, hardly serve as a scientific basis for an analysis of political movements. Rather, they claim, the term "Gnosticism" as used by Voegelin is more of an invective just as "when on the lowest level of propaganda those who do not conform with one's own opinion are smeared as communists."[24]
All of Voegelin's writing is published as hisCollected Works (CW), reviewed byMark Lilla, "Mr. Casaubon in America"The New York Review of Books 54/11 (June 28, 2007): 29–31.
According to Voegelin, the claim to gnosis may take intellectual, emotional, and volitional forms..
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