Erbil (Arabic:أربيل,ʾarbīl;[3]Syriac:ܐܲܪܒܹܝܠ,Arbel[4][5]), also calledHawler (Kurdish:هەولێر,Hewlêr),[6] is the capital and most populated city in theKurdistan Region (KRG) ofIraq and the capital of theErbil Governorate.[7] Erbil is described as the region's cultural, economic, industrial, educational and medical hub.[8]
Erbil's archaeological museum houses a large collection ofpre-Islamic artifacts, particularly theart of Mesopotamia, and is a centre for archaeological projects in the area.[14] The city was designated as the Arab Tourism Capital 2014 by the Arab Council of Tourism.[15][16] In July 2014, theCitadel of Erbil was inscribed as aWorld Heritage Site.[17]
In 2006 a small excavation was conducted by Karel Novacek of theUniversity of West Bohemia. While the citadel remains were of the Ottoman Period a field survey of the western slope of the tell found a few pottery shards from the Neolithic to Middle Bronze Age with more numerous finds from the Late Bronze to Iron Ages and from the Hellenistic, Arsacid, Sassanid Periods.[24] Being so heavily occupied, the site has never been properly excavated. In 2013 a team from the Sapienza University of Rome conducted some ground penetrating radar work on the center of the citadel. Starting in 2014 an Iraqi-led excavation began on a citadel location where the collapse of a modern building provided an opportunity for excavation. Historical aerial photographs and ground survey have also begun on the lower city.[25][26][27]
The wider plain around Erbil has a number of promising archaeological sites, most notably Tell Baqrta. The Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey began in 2012. The survey combines satellite imagery and field work to determine the development and archaeology of the plain around Erbil.[28] Tell Baqrta is a very large, 80 hectare, site which dates back to the Early Bronze Age.[29][30]
The region in which Erbil lies was largely underSumerian domination fromc. 3000 BC.
With the rise of theAkkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) all of the Akkadian Semites and Sumerians ofMesopotamia were united under one rule.[31]Erridupizir, king of the kingdom ofGutium, captured the city in 2150 BC.[32]
The first mention of Erbil in literary sources comes from the archives of the kingdom ofEbla. They record two journeys to Erbil (Irbilum) by a messenger from Ebla around 2300 BFC.
In the centuries after the fall of the Ur III empire Erbil became a power in its area. It was conquered by Shamsi-Adad I during his short lived Upper Mesopotamian Kingdom, becoming independent after its fall.
Late Bronze
By the time of theMiddle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC) Erbil was within the Assyrian zone of control.
Iron Age
The region fell under theNeo-Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC). The city then changed hands a number of times including the Persian, Greek, Parthian, Roman and Sassanid rule.
Under theMedes,Cyaxares might have settled a number of people from theancient Iranian tribe ofSagartians in the Assyrian cities of Arbela andArrapha (modernKirkuk), probably as a reward for their help in the capture ofNineveh. According to Classical authors, the Persian emperorCyrus the Great occupied Assyria in 547 BC and established it as anAchaemenid military protectorate state (or satrapy) called in Old PersianAθurā (Athura), withBabylon as the capital.[33]
The Medes, and with them theSagarthians, were to revolt againstDarius I of Persia in 522 BC, but this revolt was firmly put down by the army which Darius sent out under the leadership of General Takhmaspada the following year. The events are depicted in the Behistun Inscription which stands today in the mountains of Iran'sKermanshah province.[citation needed]
TheBattle of Gaugamela, in whichAlexander the Great defeatedDarius III of Persia, took place in 331 BC approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) west of Erbil according toUrbano Monti's world map.[34] After the battle, Darius managed to flee to the city. (Somewhat inaccurately, the confrontation is sometimes known as the "Battle of Arbela".) Subsequently, Arbela was part of Alexander's Empire. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Arbela became part of the HellenisticSeleucid Empire.
Erbil became part of the region disputed between Rome and Persia under theSasanids. During the Parthian era to early Sassanian era, Erbil became the capital of the state ofAdiabene (AssyrianḤadyab). The town and kingdom are known in Jewish history for the conversion of the royal family, notably QueenHelena of Adiabene, to Judaism.[35]
Its populace then gradually converted from theancient Mesopotamian religion between the first and fourth centuries toChristianity, withPkidha traditionally becoming its first bishop around 104 AD. The ancient Mesopotamian religion did not die out entirely in the region until the tenth century AD.[36][37] There also existed a Christian community thought to be converts from Judaism.[38] TheAdiabene (East Syriac ecclesiastical province) in Arbela (Syriac:ܐܪܒܝܠArbel) became a centre of easternSyriac Christianity until late in the Middle Ages.[38]
Medieval history
As many of theAssyrians who had converted toChristianity adopted Biblical (including Jewish) names, most of the early bishops hadEastern Aramaic or Jewish/Biblical names, which does not suggest that many of the early Christians in this city were converts fromJudaism.[39] It served as the seat of aMetropolitan of theAssyrian Church of the East. From the city's Christian period come many church fathers and well-known authors inAramaic.
The most notable Kurdish tribe in the region was theHadhabani, of which several individuals also acted as governors for the city from the late tenth century until the 12th century when it was conquered by theZengids and its governorship given to the Turkic Begtegenids, of whom the most notable wasGökböri, who retained the city during theAyyubid era.[41][42] Yaqut al-Hamawi further describes Erbil as being mostly Kurdish-populated in the 13th century.[43]
When the Mongolsinvaded the Near East in the 13th century, they attacked Arbil for the first time in 1237. They plundered the lower town but had to retreat before an approaching Caliphate army and had to put off the capture of the citadel.[44][broken footnote] After thefall of Baghdad toHülegü and the Mongols in 1258, the last Begtegenid ruler surrendered to the Mongols, claiming the Kurdish garrison of the city would follow suit; they refused this however, therefore the Mongols returned to Arbil and were able to capture the citadel after a siege lasting six months.[45][46] Hülegü then appointed aChristian Assyrian governor to the town, and theSyriac Orthodox Church was allowed to build a church.
As time passed, sustained persecutions of Christians, Jews and Buddhists throughout theIlkhanate began in earnest in 1295 under the rule ofOïrat amirNauruz, which affected the indigenous Christian Assyrians greatly.[47] This manifested early on in the reign of theIlkhanGhazan. In 1297, after Ghazan had felt strong enough to overcome Nauruz's influence, he put a stop to the persecutions.
During the reign of the IlkhanÖljeitü, theAssyrian inhabitants retreated to the citadel to escape persecution. In the Spring of 1310, theMalek (governor) of the region attempted to seize it from them with the help of the Kurds. Despite the Turkic bishopMar Yahballaha's best efforts to avert the impending doom, the citadel was at last taken after a siege by Ilkhanate troops and Kurdish tribesmen on 1 July 1310, and all the defenders were massacred, including many of the Assyrian inhabitants of the lower town.[48][49]
However, the city's Assyrian population remained numerically significant until the destruction of the city by the forces ofTimur in 1397.[50]
Provisions of the Treaty of Sèvres for an independentKurdistan (in 1920)
Modern history
Erbil lies on the plain beneath the mountains, but for the most part, the inhabitants ofIraqi Kurdistan dwell up above in the rugged and rocky terrain that is the traditional habitat of the Kurds since time immemorial.[51]
A postcard showing the city of Erbil in 1900
The modern town of Erbil stands on atell topped by an Ottomanfort. During theMiddle Ages, Erbil became a major trading centre on the route betweenBaghdad andMosul, a role which it still plays today with important road links to the outside world.
Erbil is also home to a large population of refugees due to ongoingconflicts in Syria. In 2020, it was estimated that 450,000 refugees had settled in the Erbil metropolitan area since 2003, with many of them expected to remain.[52]
The parliament of theIraqi Kurdistan was established in Erbil in 1970 after negotiations between the Iraqi government and theKurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led byMustafa Barzani, but was effectively controlled bySaddam Hussein until the Kurdish uprising at the end of the 1991Gulf War. The legislature ceased to function effectively in the mid-1990s when fighting broke out between the two main Kurdish factions, the Kurdistan Democratic Party and thePatriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). The city was captured by the KDP in 1996 with the assistance of the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. The PUK then established an alternative Kurdish government inSulaimaniyah. KDP claimed that in March 1996, PUK asked for Iran's help to fight KDP. Considering this as a foreign attack on Iraq's soil, the KDP asked Saddam Hussein for help.
The Kurdish Parliament in Erbil reconvened after a peace agreement was signed between the Kurdish parties in 1997, but had no real power. The Kurdish government in Erbil had control only in the western and northern parts of the autonomous region. During the2003 invasion of Iraq, aUnited States special forces task force was headquartered just outside Erbil. The city was the scene of celebrations on 10 April 2003 after the fall of theBa'ath regime.
Erbil International Airport is one of Iraq's busiest airports. Services include direct flights to many domestic destinations such as Baghdad international airport. There are international flights from Erbil to many countries; such as the Netherlands, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Austria, Turkey, Jordan and elsewhere around the world. There are occasionally seasonal flights from Erbil international airport. Erbil International Airport was briefly closed to international commercial flights in September 2017 by the Iraqi government in retaliation for the Kurdish independence vote but reopened in March 2018.[56][57]
Another important form of transportation between Erbil and the surrounding areas is by bus. Among others, bus services offer connections to Turkey and Iran. A new bus terminal was opened in 2014.[58] Erbil has a system of six ring roads encircling the city.[59]
Climate
Erbil has ahot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classificationCsa), closely bordering ahot semi-arid climate (Köppen:BSh) with long, extremely hot summers and mild winters. Summers are arid, with little to no precipitation occurring between June and September. Winters are usually wet with occasional flooding, with January being the wettest month.[60]
A downpour on 17 December 2021 caused flash floods in the area, killing 14 people.[61]
TheCitadel of Erbil is a tell or occupied mound in the historical heart of Erbil, rising between 25 and 32 metres (82 and 105 ft) from the surrounding plain. The buildings on top of the tell stretch over a roughly oval area of 430 by 340 metres (1,410 ft × 1,120 ft) occupying 102,000 square metres (1,100,000 sq ft). It has been claimed that the site is the oldest continuously inhabited town in the world.[66] The earliest evidence for occupation of the citadel mound dates to the fifth millennium BC and possibly earlier. It appears for the first time in historical sources during theUr III period and gained particular importance during theNeo-Assyrian Empire (tenth to seventh centuries BC) period. West of the citadel at Ary Kon quarter, a chamber tomb dating to the Neo-Assyrian Empire period has been excavated.[14] During the Sassanian period and theAbbasid Caliphate, Erbil was an important centre forSyriac Christianity and theAssyrians in general. After theMongols captured the citadel in 1258, Erbil's importance began to decline. The main gate is guarded by an immense statue of a Kurd reading: "the house of the citadel behind him are built into stony ground of the mound and look down on the streets and tarmacked roads that circle them".
During the 20th century, the urban structure was significantly modified, as a result of which a number of houses and public buildings were destroyed. In 2007, the High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR) was established to oversee therestoration of the citadel. In the same year, all inhabitants, except one family, were evicted from the citadel as part of a large restoration project. Since then,archaeological research and restoration works have been carried out at and around the tell by various international teams and in co-operation with local specialists, and many areas remain off-limits to visitors due to the danger of unstable walls and infrastructure. The government plans to have 50 families live in the citadel once it is renovated.
The only religious structure that currently survives in the citadel is theMulla Effendi mosque. When it was fully occupied, the citadel was divided in three districts ormahallas: from east to west the Serai, the Takya and the Topkhana. The Serai was occupied by notable families; the Takya district was named after the homes ofdervishes, which are calledtakyas; and the Topkhana district housed craftsmen and farmers. Other sights to visit in the citadel include the bathing rooms (hammam) built in 1775 located near the mosque and the Textile Museum.[67] Erbil citadel has been inscribed on the World Heritage List on 21 June 2014.
The 36-metre-high (118-foot)Mudhafaria Minaret, situated in Minaret Park several blocks from the citadel, dates back to the late 12th century AD and the Governor of Erbil, in the reign ofSaladin, Muzaffar Al-Din Abu Sa’eed Al-Kawkaboori (Gökböri), who had entered in the obedience of Saladin without war and married his sister. It has an octagonal base decorated with two tiers of niches, which is separated from the main shaft by a small balcony, also decorated. Another historical minaret with turquoise glazed tiles is nearby.
The Mound of Qalich Agha lies within the grounds of the Museum of Civilization, 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from the citadel. An excavation in 1996 found tools from theHalaf,Ubaid andUruk periods.[14]
The local major football team isErbil Soccer Club which plays its football matches atFranso Hariri Stadium (named after the assassinated Assyrian politician, former governor of Erbil cityFranso Hariri) which is based in the south part of central Erbil. They won 3 Iraqi nation league titles and reached the AFC Final twice, but lost both times.
Although there are no official statistics on the number of Turkmens living in Erbil city, Turkmen community leaders claim that between 100,000 and 400,000 Turkmens reside in the Erbil Governorate.[71] In the city itself they mainly reside in the neighbourhoods of Taci, Mareke and Three Tak in Erbil's city centre, around the citadel. Until 2006, they were living in the Tophane, Tekke and Saray neighborhoods of the Citadel, which contained almost 700 houses. In 2006, the citadel was emptied, and the Turkmen in the citadel were relocated to other neighbourhoods.[72]
Iraq's first two Turkmen schools were opened on 17 November 1993, one in Erbil and the other inKifri.[73]
Erbil'sAnkawa district is mainly populated by Christian Assyrians. The district houses approximately 40 churches.[74][75]
IDPs
In wake of thewar against the Islamic State, millions of Iraq'sInternally displaced people (IDPs) fled into the KRG to find protection. At one point the city housed 10.7% of the 1.1 million IDPs and 200,000 refugees (mainly fromSyria). However after 2016, the number of IDPs began to decline and now hovers around slightly over 230,000.[8]
Economy
Agriculture has been a significant economic sector in Erbil in the past. Today, through its architectural heritage, ancient sites, traditional bazaars, historical mosques, and modern cultural centers,tourism forms a major part of Erbil’s economy, besides its bigoil and gas industry. In recent years, foreign and domestic investments in infrastructure, hotels, and entertainment facilities have further strengthened Erbil’s position as a growing tourist destination in the Kurdistan Region and Iraq.[8]
Erbil 2050 Master Plan
Between 2007 and 2009, the General Directorate of Urban Planning (GDUP) in the Ministry of Municipalities and Tourism (MoMT) developed the Erbil Master Plan. Over the years, investments fromTurkey and theGulf countries led to acceleratedurban sprawl and an unexpected population increase, which made the original plan unsustainable. To address this, the GDUP partnered with theJapan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) to develop a new approach with a planning horizon extending to 2050. JICA delivered its final proposal for the updated plan in October 2024.[8]
Green Belt Project
TheErbil Green Belt Project[a] is a large-scalemacro-engineering project, launched in October 2025, designed to encircle the city with aprotective green zone composed of trees and other vegetation. The project aims to combatdeforestation, mitigateclimate change and itsimpacts, improve theurban environment, and enhance residents’ quality of life, while also providing employment opportunities and economic stimulus.[76]
The KRG's initiative comes amid broader regional trends, as many Middle Eastern nations embark on large-scale environmental projects. Saudi Arabia’sMiddle East Green Initiative aims to plant 50 billion trees across the region, while the United Arab Emirates has committed to reaching net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. The KRG's efforts signal an unusually ambitious program withinIraq, as theFederal government in Baghdad has often struggled to advance nationwide afforestation and climate projects.[77] The project is part of the broader Erbil Master Plan,[76] which aims to guide the development and reorganization of Erbil city until 2050 in cooperation with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).[8][78]
The project was officially inaugurated on 30 October 2025 by KRG Prime MinisterMasrour Barzani.[79]
^"أربيل" (in Arabic). Al Jazeera. Retrieved28 December 2019.
^"Search Entry".assyrianlanguages.org. Retrieved26 May 2021.
^Khan, Geoffrey (1999).A Grammar of Neo-Aramaic: The Dialect of the Jews of Arbel. BRILL. p. 2.ISBN978-90-04-30504-5.There are a number of variant forms of the name Arbel. The form Arbel, which is used throughout this book, is the Neo-Aramaic form of the name. The Arabic-speaking Jews of the town refer to it as Arbīl or Arwīl. In Classical Arabic sources it is known as Irbīl. The Kurds call it Hawler, which appears to have developed from the form Arbel by a series of metatheses of consonants. The name appears to be of non-Semitic origin. It is first found in cuneiform texts dating to the third millennium B.C., where it usually has the form Urbilum.
^Al Yaqoobi, Dara, et al., "Archaeological investigations on the citadel of Erbil: background, framework and results", The archaeology of the Kurdistan region of Iraq and adjacent regions, pp. 23-27, 2016
^Macginnis, J. D. A., "Archaeology of the Townunder the Citadel Erbil/Hawlér", Subartu 4-5, pp. 10-13, 2011
^Ur, Jason, et al., "Ancient Cities and Landscapes in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq: The Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey 2012 Season", Iraq, vol. 75, pp. 89–117, 2013
^Kopanias, Konstantinos, et al., "The Tell Nader and Tell Baqrta Project in the Kurdistan region of Iraq: Preliminary report of the 2011 season", Subartu 6, pp. 23–57, 2013
^Peyronel, Luca et al., "The Italian Archaeological Expedition in the Erbil Plain, Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Preliminary Report on the 2016 – 2018 Excavations at Helawa", Mesopotamia, vol. 54, pp. 1-104, 2019
^Yarshater, Ehsan (1993). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3.Cambridge University Press. p. 482.ISBN978-0-521-20092-9.Of the four residences of the Achaemenids named byHerodotus—Ecbatana,Pasargadae orPersepolis,Susa andBabylon—the last [situated in Iraq] was maintained as their most important capital, the fixed winter quarters, the central office of bureaucracy, exchanged only in the heat of summer for some cool spot in the highlands. Under theSeleucids and theParthians the site of the Mesopotamian capital moved slightly to the north on theTigris—toSeleucia andCtesiphon. It is indeed symbolic that these new foundations were built from the bricks of ancientBabylon, just as laterBaghdad, a little further upstream, was built out of the ruins of theSassanian double city ofSeleucia-Ctesiphon.
^Neusner, Jacob (1969).A history of the Jews in Babylonia, Volume 2. Brill Archive. p. 354.
^abBritish Institute of Persian Studies (1981).Iran, Volumes 19–21. the University of Michigan. pp. 15, 17.
^Gillman, Ian and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit.Christians in Asia before 1500. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1999) p. 33
^D. Sellwood,"ADIABENE," Encyclopædia Iranica, I/5, pp. 456–459
^V. Minorsky. Studies in Caucasian History III, Prehistory of Saladin. Cambridge University Press. 208 pp. 1953.
^Nováček, K., Amin, N., & Melčák, M. (2013). A Medieval City Within Assyrian Walls: The Continuity of the Town of Arbīl in Northern Mesopotamia. Iraq, 75, 1–42.doi:10.1017/S0021088900000401
^B. James. Le « territoire tribal des Kurdes » et l’aire iraqienne (xe-xiiie siècles): Esquisse des recompositions spatiales. Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée, 2007. P. 101-126.
Sourdel, D. (2010), "Irbil", in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.;Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.),Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill Online,OCLC624382576
Villard, Pierre (2001), "Arbèles", in Joannès, Francis (ed.),Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne, Bouquins (in French), Paris: Robert Laffont, pp. 68–69,ISBN978-2-221-09207-1
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