Anepistle (/ɪˈpɪsəl/; from Ancient Greek ἐπιστολή (epistolḗ) 'letter') is a writing directed or sent to a person or group of people, usually an elegant and formaldidacticletter. The epistle genre of letter-writing was common inancient Egypt as part of thescribal-school writing curriculum. The letters in theNew Testament fromApostles toChristians are usually referred to as epistles. Those traditionally attributed toPaul are known asPauline epistles and the others ascatholic (i.e., "general") epistles.
Theancient Egyptians wrote epistles, most often forpedagogical reasons.Egyptologist Edward Wente (1990) speculates that theFifth-dynasty PharaohDjedkare Isesi—in his many letters sent to hisviziers—was a pioneer in the epistolary genre.[1] Its existence is firmly attested during theSixth Dynasty of theOld Kingdom, and is prominently featured in the educational guideThe Book of Kemit written during theEleventh Dynasty.[1] A standardized formulae for epistolary compositions existed by the time of theMiddle Kingdom of Egypt. The epistolary formulae used in theRamesside Period found its roots in the letters composed during theAmarna Period of theTwentieth Dynasty. Wente describes the "Satirical Letter" found on thePapyrus Anastasi I of theNineteenth Dynasty as an epistle which was commonly copied as a writing exercise by Egyptian schoolchildren on ceramicostraca (over eighty examples of which have been found so far by archaeologists). Epistle letters were also written to the dead, and, by the Ramesside Period, to thegods; the latter became even more widespread during the eras ofPersian andGreek domination.[1]
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Epistles in prose and verse were a major genre of literature among theGreeks and particularly theRomans. The letters ofCicero are one of the most important sources on the history of the lateRoman Republic and preserve features of colloquialLatin not always in evidence in his speeches and treatises. The letters ofPliny the Younger likewise are studied as both examples of Latin prose with self-conscious literary qualities and sources for historical information.Ovid produced three collections of verse epistles, composed inelegiac couplets: theHeroides, letters written in the person of legendary women to their absent lovers; and theTristia andEx Ponto, written in first person during the poet'sexile. The epistles ofSeneca, with their moral or philosophical ruminations, influenced laterpatristic writers.
Christian epistles, both those in the New Testament and among the early Christian Fathers, were written in accordance with the formalized,Hellenistic tradition. This reflects the amount of Hellenistic influence upon the epistle writers, especially in the case of Paul. Classicist Steve Reece has compared thousands of Greek, Roman, and Jewish letters contemporary with Paul and observes that Paul follows many of the normal epistolary conventions.[2]
In contrast to modern letters, epistles usually named the author at the very beginning, followed by the recipient (for example, seePhilippians1:1). The scribe (or more correctly, theamanuensis) who wrote down the letter may be named at the end of the epistle (e.g.,Romans16:22). In the absence of apostal system, thecourier may also be named (e.g.Ephesians6:21–22).
After the names of the author and recipient, Pauline epistles often open with the greeting, "Grace and peace to you." "Grace" was a common Hellenistic greeting, while "peace" (shalom) was the commonJewish greeting; this reflected Paul's dual identity in Jewish faith and Hellenistic culture. There may also be a word of thanks to the audience. In secular letters, a prayer or wish for health followed.
The body begins with a brief statement introducing the main topic of the entire body.
The epistles of theNew Testament canon are usually divided as follows:
The Pauline epistles, also called Epistles of Paul or Letters of Paul, are the thirteen books of theNew Testament attributed toPaul the Apostle, although the authorship of some is in dispute. Among theseepistles are some of the earliest extant Christian documents. They provide an insight into the beliefs and controversies ofearly Christianity. As part of thecanon of the New Testament, they are foundational texts for bothChristian theology andethics. TheEpistle to the Hebrews, although it does not bear his name, wastraditionally considered Pauline (although Origen questioned its authorship in the 3rd century CE), but from the 16th century onwards opinion steadily moved against Pauline authorship and few scholars now ascribe it to Paul, mostly because it does not read like any of his other epistles in style and content.[3] Most scholars agree that Paul actually wrote seven of the Pauline epistles, but many suggest that four of the epistles in Paul's name arepseudepigraphic (Ephesians,First Timothy,Second Timothy, andTitus[4]), perhaps being written or reconstructed by Paul's followers, and that two other epistles are even less likely to have been written by Paul (Second Thessalonians andColossians).[4] According to some scholars, Paul wrote these letters with the help of a secretary, oramanuensis,[5] who would have influenced their style, if not their theological content.
The Pauline epistles are usually placed between theActs of the Apostles and theCatholic epistles in modern editions. Most Greek manuscripts, however, place the General epistles first,[6] and a few minuscules (175,325,336, and1424) place the Pauline epistles at the end of the New Testament.
| Status | Categorisation[7] | Epistle |
|---|---|---|
| Undisputed | Authentic Pauline epistles | |
| Disputed | Deutero-Pauline epistles; may be authentic | |
| Pastoral epistles; probably not authentic | ||
| Anonymoussermon; not Pauline |
The catholic epistles (also called the general epistles[8]) are seven epistles of the New Testament. Listed in order of their appearance in the New Testament, the catholic epistles are:
| Traditional epistle name | Author according to the text (NRSV) | Traditional attribution[9] | Modern consensus[9] | Addressee(s) according to the text (NRSV) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Epistle of James | "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ" | James, brother of Jesus | An unknown James | "To thetwelve tribes in theDispersion"[10] |
| First Epistle of Peter | "Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ" | Simon Peter | MaybeSimon Peter | "To the exiles of the Dispersion inPontus,Galatia,Cappadocia,Asia andBithynia"[11] |
| Second Epistle of Peter | "Sim(e)on Peter, a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ" | Simon Peter | NotSimon Peter | To all Christians[12] |
| First Epistle of John | anonymous | John, son of Zebedee | Unknown | To fellow Christians[13] |
| Second Epistle of John | anonymous | John, son of Zebedee | Unknown | "To the elect lady and her children"[14] |
| Third Epistle of John | anonymous | John, son of Zebedee | Unknown | "To the belovedGaius"[15] |
| Epistle of Jude | "Jude" (or "Judas"), "a servant," (Gk. slave), "of Jesus Christ and brother of James" | Jude, brother of Jesus | An unknown Jude | To all Christians[16] |
TheBook of Revelation contains seven brief epistles directed at seven specific churches in Asia Minor:Ephesus,Smyrna,Pergamum,Thyatira,Sardis,Philadelphia, andLaodicea. According to Revelation 1, in a sudden vision Christ instructs John to write down what he is shown in a book and to send it to these seven churches with the specific cover letters.
These are letters written by some very early Christian leaders, in the 1st or 2nd century, which are not part of theNew Testament. They are generally considered to form part of the basis of Christian tradition. The ennobling word "epistle" is used partly because these were all written in Greek, in a time period close to when the epistles of the New Testament were written, and thus "epistle" lends additional weight of authority.
In the context of aliturgy, epistle may refer more specifically to a particular passage from a New Testament epistle (the Pauline epistles and theGeneral epistles)—sometimes also from theBook of Acts or theRevelation of John, but not theFour Gospels—that is scheduled to be read on a certain day or at a certain occasion.
In theRoman CatholicMass andAnglicanEucharist, epistles are read between theCollect and theGospel reading. The correspondingGregorian chants have a special tone (tonus epistolae). When the epistle is sung or chanted atSolemn Mass it is done so by thesubdeacon. Epistles are also read by anElder orBishop in theLutheranDivine Service, between thegradual and the Gospel.
In theDivine Liturgy of theEastern Orthodox Church and theByzantine Rite Catholics the Epistle reading is called theApostol (the same name is given to thelectionary from which it is read). The Apostol includes the Acts of the Apostles as well as the Epistles, but never theApocalypse (Revelation of John). Unlike in theLatin liturgical rites, there are never readings from theOld Testament.[20] There are Epistlelessons for every day of the year, except for weekdays duringGreat Lent, when the Divine Liturgy is not celebrated. These daily Epistle readings are a part of thePaschal cycle, being ultimately dependent upon the date ofPascha (Easter). There are also lessons appointed for thefeast days of numeroussaints and commemorations. There may be one, two, or three readings from the Apostol during a single Liturgy. The Epistle is read between theProkeimenon and theAlleluia. The Epistle reading is always linked to a reading from theGospel, though some services, such asMatins, will have a Gospel lesson, but no Epistle (Vespers on a number of feast days (typically for Apostles) will also have three epistle readings but no Gospel). A number of services besides the Divine Liturgy will have an Epistle and Gospel reading. Such services often include a Prokeimenon and Alleluia as well. The Epistle is chanted by thereader, though at a Hierarchical Liturgy (a Divine Liturgy celebrated by abishop), it is read by adeacon. The one who chants the Epistle also reads the verses of theProkeimenon.
During theMiddle Ages, the art of letter writing was taught in numerous manuals, and thears dictaminis became an important genre of instructional discourse. The necessity for letter writing was in large part due to the general deterioration of civil life and the decay of theRoman road system in the earlyMiddle Ages, factors that obliged literate people with business to transact to send letters instead of travel themselves.[21] A vast number of letters and letter-writing manuals were written in the period'slingua franca,Latin.[22]
Scholars normally place the thirteen Pauline letters of the New Testament into three categories: The Pastoral Epistles of 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus, which are very widely recognized as having been written by someone other than Paul; the Deutero-Pauline letters of Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians, which are fairly widely as being written by other authors (three different authors; these must be judged as authentic or not on a case by case basis); and the other seven letters, which are called the 'Undisputed Paulines': Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon.
