Coin of the Epirote League, depicting Zeus (left) and a lightning bolt with the word "ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ"'of the Epirotes' (right)
The nameEpirus is theLatin name of the region, derived from theAncient Greek:Ἤπειρος,romanized: Ḗpeiros (Doric Greek:Ἄπειρος,romanized: Ápeiros), meaning "mainland" orterra firma.[2][3] It is thought to come from anIndo-European root*apero- 'coast',[4] and was applied by the Ancient Greeks to the territory oppositeCorfu and theIonian islands.[5][6] The name first appears in the work ofHecataeus of Miletus in the 6th century BC and is one of the few Greek names from the view of an external observer with a maritime-geographical perspective. Although a foreign name, it later came to be adopted by the inhabitants of the area,[7] and it was struck on the coinage of theunified Epirote commonwealth: "ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ" (Ancient Greek:Ἀπειρωτᾶν,romanized: Āpeirōtân,Attic Greek:Ἠπειρωτῶν,romanized: Ēpeirōtôn, i.e. "of the Epirotes", see adjacent image).
In theMiddle Ages, the term was used by theDespotate of Epirus, one of the Greek successor states of theByzantine Empire following the dismemberment of the latter in 1204. By theLate Middle Ages, during the period ofHumanism and theEuropean Renaissance, the term was used as a synonym forAlbania.[8] During theOttoman period the term was not used. Since the development of the modernGreek nationalism from the early 19th century onwards, the part of Lower Albania – the southern half ofOttoman Albania – that fell within the definition of ancient Epirus, has been called by the newly revived name by Greeks ever since.[9] InGreece the name is used by the administrative region ofEpirus. TheAlbanian nameEpiri, which is derived from the ancient name, is used for the ancient region and not for an administrative one. Similarly, theAromanian nameEpiru is derived from the ancient one.
Historically, the geographical area of Epirus proper is defined within the lines drawn fromCape Gjuhëz of theCeraunian Mountains in the north-west, toMount Qelqëz in the north-east, toMount Gavrovo in the south-east, to the mouth of theAmbracian Gulf in the south-west.[10][11] The northern boundary of ancient Epirus is alternatively given as theVjosa river.[12] Epirus's eastern boundary is defined by thePindus Mountains, that form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus fromMacedonia andThessaly.[13] To the west, Epirus faces theIonian Sea. The island ofCorfu is situated off the Epirote coast but is not regarded as part of Epirus.
The definition of Epirus has changed over time, such that modern administrative boundaries do not correspond to the boundaries of ancient Epirus. Theregion of Epirus in Greece only comprises a fraction of classical Epirus and does not include its easternmost portions, which lie in Thessaly. In Albania, where the concept of Epirus is never used in an official context, classical Epirus comprises parts of the counties ofGjirokastër andVlorë.
In the Neolithic period Epirus was populated by seafarers along the coast and by shepherds and hunters from the southwestern Balkans who brought with them the Greek language. These people buried their leaders in large mounds containing shaft graves. Similar burial chambers were subsequently used by the Mycenaean civilization, suggesting that the founders ofMycenae may have come from Epirus and centralAlbania. Epirus itself remained culturally backward during this time, but Mycenaean remains have been found at two religious shrines of great antiquity in the region: the Oracle of the Dead on the Acheron River, familiar to the heroes of Homer'sOdyssey, and the Oracle ofZeus at Dodona, to whom Achilles prayed in the Iliad.[13]
In the Middle Bronze Age, Epirus was inhabited by the same nomadic Hellenic tribes that went on to settle in the rest of Greece.[14] Aristotle considered the region around Dodona to have been part ofHellas and the region where theHellenes originated.[15][16]
The theater ofDodona withMt. Tomarus in the backgroundRegions of mainland Greece and environments in antiquity
Geographically on the edge of the Greek world, Epirus remained for the most part outside the limelight of Greek history until relatively late, much like the neighbouring Greek regions of Macedonia, Aetolia, and Acarnania, with which Epirus had political, cultural, linguistic and economic connections.[19] Unlike most other Greeks of this time, who lived in or aroundcity-states, the inhabitants of Epirus lived in small villages and their way of life was foreign to that of thepoleis of southern Greece.[13][20] Their region lay on the periphery of the Greek world[13] and was far from peaceful; for many centuries, it remained afrontier area contested with theIllyrian peoples to the north. However, Epirus had a far greater religious significance than might have been expected given its geographical remoteness, due to the presence of the shrine and oracle atDodona – regarded as second only to the more famous oracle atDelphi.
The Epirotes, speakers of aNorthwest Greek dialect, different from the Doric of the Greek colonies on the Ionian islands, and bearers of mostly Greek names, as evidenced by epigraphy, seem to have been regarded with some disdain by some classical writers. The 5th-century BC Athenian historianThucydides describes them as "barbarians" in hisHistory of the Peloponnesian War,[21] as doesStrabo in hisGeography,[22] although the latter clearly distinguishes them from the neighboringIllyrians.[23] Other writers, such asHerodotus,[24]Dionysius of Halicarnassus,[25]Pausanias,[26] andEutropius,[27] describe them as Greeks. Similarly, Epirote tribes/states are included in theArgive andEpidaurian lists of the Greek Thearodokoi (hosts of sacred envoys).[28]Plutarch mentions an interesting element of Epirote folklore regarding Achilles: In his biography of KingPyrrhus, he claims that Achilles "had a divine status in Epirus and in the local dialect he was called Aspetos" (meaningunspeakable,unspeakably great, inHomeric Greek).[29][30]
On the death of Arybbas,Alexander of Epirus succeeded to the throne and the titleKing of Epirus in 334 BC. He invaded Italy, but was killed in battle by aLucanian in theBattle of Pandosia against severalItalic tribes 331 BC.[13][32]Aeacides of Epirus, who succeeded Alexander, espoused the cause of Olympias againstCassander, but was dethroned in 313 BC. The struggle betweenMacedonia andEpirus involved theIllyrianTaulantii, when the Illyrian kingGlaukias offered asylum to Aeacides' son,Pyrrhus, after his father was expelled from his kingdom among theMolossians.[33] In 306 BC Glaukias invaded Epirus and established Pyrrhus on the Epirote throne, where he ruled with Illyrian help until he attended the wedding of one of his adoptive brothers (son of Glaukias) in 302 BC. In Pyrrhus' absence Molossians replaced him withNeoptolemus, another member of the Aeacides. Pyrrhus managed to murder Neoptolemus and eventually regained the throne.[34] As king of Epirus, Pyrrhus strengthened his links with the Illyrian tribes by marriage alliances.[33][35] For six years Pyrrhus fought against theRomans andCarthaginians in southernItaly andSicily. The high cost of his victories against the Romans gave Epirus a new, but brief, importance, as well as a lasting contribution to the Greek language with the concept of a "Pyrrhic victory". Pyrrhus nonetheless brought great prosperity to Epirus, building the great theater ofDodona and a new suburb atAmbracia (now modernArta), which he made his capital.[13]
The Aeacid dynasty ended in 232 BC, but Epirus remained a substantial power, unified under the auspices of the Epirote League as a federal state with its own parliament, orsynedrion.[13] However, it was faced with the growing threat of the expansionistRoman Republic, which fought a series of wars againstMacedon. The League steered an uneasy neutral course in the first two Macedonian Wars but split in theThird Macedonian War (171–168 BC), with the Molossians siding with the Macedonians and the Chaonians and Thesprotians siding with Rome.[13] The outcome was disastrous for Epirus; Molossia fell to Rome in 167 BC and 150,000 of its inhabitants were enslaved and deported; the central part of Epirus never regained its former prosperity.[13][36]
TheRoman provinces in the Balkans, includingEpirus Vetus andEpirus Nova, ca. 400 AD
Sometime during the provincial reorganization byDiocletian (r. 284–305), the western portion of the province of Macedonia along the Adriatic coast was split off into a new province, called "New Epirus" (Latin:Epirus Nova) which roughly corresponded to southernIllyria proper, historically inhabited byIllyrian tribes. Epirus proper thereafter became known as "Old Epirus" (Latin:Epirus Vetus,Ancient Greek:Παλαιὰ Ἤπειρος).[38][39]
The two Epirote provinces became part of theDiocese of Moesia, until it was divided in ca. 369 into the dioceses ofMacedonia andDacia, when they became part of the former.[40] In the 4th century, Epirus was still a stronghold ofpaganism, and was aided by EmperorJulian (r. 361–363) and hispraetorian prefectClaudius Mamertinus through reduction in taxes and the rebuilding of the provincial capital, Nicopolis.[41] According toJordanes, in 380 theVisigoths raided the area.[41] With the division of the Empire on the death ofTheodosius I in 395, Epirus became part of the Eastern Roman orByzantine Empire.[41] In 395–397, the Visigoths underAlaric plundered Greece. They remained in Epirus for a few years, until 401, and again in 406–407, during Alaric's alliance with theWestern Roman generalissimoStilicho in order to wrest theEastern Illyricum from the Eastern Empire.[41]
TheSynecdemus ofHierocles, composed in ca. 527/8 AD but probably reflecting the situation in the first half of the 5th century, reports 11 cities for Old Epirus (Ancient Greek:Παλαιὰ Ἤπειρος,Latin:Epirus Vetus): the capital Nicopolis,Dodona,Euroea,Hadrianopolis,Appon,Phoenice,Anchiasmos,Buthrotum,Photike, Corfu Island, and Ithaca Island.[42] New Epirus, with capital atDyrrhachium, comprised 9 cities.[41] From 467 on, the Ionian Islands and the coasts of Epirus became subject to raids by theVandals, who had taken over theNorth African provinces and established theirown kingdom centred onCarthage. The Vandals notably seized Nicopolis in 474 as a bargaining chip in their negotiations with EmperorZeno, and plundered Zakynthos, killing many of its inhabitants and ferrying off others into slavery.[43]Epirus Nova became a battleground in the rebellions of theOstrogoths after 479.[43] In 517, a raid of theGetae orAntae reached Greece, includingEpirus Vetus.[43] The claim ofProcopius of Caesarea in hisSecret History, that underJustinian I (r. 527–565) the entirety of the Balkan provinces was raided by barbarians every year, is considered rhetorical hyperbole by modern scholars; only a single Slavic raid to the environs of Dyrrhachium, in 548/9, has been documented.[43] Procopius further reports that in 551, in an attempt to interdict the Byzantines' lines of communication with Italy during theGothic War, the Ostrogoth kingTotila sent his fleet to raid the shores of Epirus.[44] In response to these raids, and to repair the damage done by two destructive earthquakes in 522, Justinian initiated a wide-ranging programme of reconstruction and re-fortification: Hadrianopolis was rebuilt, albeit in reduced extent, and renamed Justinianopolis, whileEuroea was moved further inland (traditionally identified with the founding ofIoannina), while Procopius claims that no less than 36 smaller fortresses in Epirus Vetus—most of them not identifiable today—were either rebuilt or built anew.[44]
Of the various Slavic tribes, only theBaiounitai, first attestedc. 615, are known by name, giving their name to their region of settlement: "Vagenetia".[45] Based on the density of the Slavic toponyms in Epirus, the Slavs must have settled in the region, although the extent of this settlement is unclear.[46] Slavic toponyms occur mainly in the mountainous areas of the interior and the coasts of theGulf of Corinth, indicative of the fact that this was the avenue used by most of the Slavs who crossed the Gulf into thePeloponnese. With the exception of some few toponyms on Corfu, the Ionian Islands seem to not have been affected by Slavic settlement. The linguistic analysis of the toponyms reveals that they date mostly to the early wave of Slavic settlement at the turn of the 6th/7th centuries. Due to scarcity of textual evidence, it is unclear how much the area was affected by the second wave of Slavic migration, which began in the middle of the 8th century due toBulgar pressure in the northern Balkans.[47] Slavic toponyms are nearly lacking in the mountains ofLabëria (on theKurvelesh plateau), in theIonian coast where todayLab Albanian villages neighbour with theGreek-speaking ones, therefore it can be assumed that the expansion of the Slavs had not reached this region.[48] A number of Slavic toponyms in Epirus proper were acquired by Albanian in the earliest phase of contacts between the two languages (Early Middle Ages), reflecting some of the more archaic phonetic features of Slavic as well as early Albanian phonology.[49][50]
As in eastern Greece, the restoration of Byzantine rule seems to have proceeded from the islands, chiefly Cephallonia, which was certainly under firm Imperial control inc. 702, whenPhilippicus Bardanes was banished there. The gradual restoration of Imperial rule is evidenced further from the participation of local bishops in councils inConstantinople: whereas only the bishop of Dyrrhachium participated in the Ecumenical Councils of680/1 and692, a century later the bishops of Dyrrhachium, Nicopolis, Corfu, Cephallonia, and Zakynthos are attested in theSecond Council of Nicaea in 787.[51] In about the middle of the 8th century, theTheme of Cephallenia was established, but at least initially it was more oriented towards restoring Byzantine control over the Ionian and Adriatic seas, combating Saracen piracy, and securing communications with the remaining Byzantine possessions in Italy, rather than any systematic effort at subduing the Epirote mainland.[51] Nevertheless, following the onset of theMuslim conquest of Sicily in 827, the Ionian became particularly exposed to Arab raids.[52]
Map of the southern Balkans and western Anatolia in ca. 900 AD, with theByzantinethemes and major settlements.
The 9th century saw great progress in the restoration of Imperial control in the mainland, as evidenced by the participation of the bishops of Ioannina,Naupaktos, Hadrianopolis, and Vagenetia (evidently by now organized as aSklavinia under imperial rule) in the Ecumenical Councils of869/70 and879/80.[52] The Byzantine recovery resulted in an influx of Greeks from southern Italy andAsia Minor into the Greek interior, while remaining Slavs were Christianized andHellenized.[53] The eventual success of the Hellenization campaign also suggests a continuity of the original Greek population, and that the Slavs had settled among many Greeks, in contrast to areas further north, in what is now Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, as those areas could not be Hellenized when they were recovered by the Byzantines in the early 11th century.[53] Following thegreat naval victory of admiralNasar in 880, and the beginning of the Byzantine offensive against the Arabs in southern Italy in the 880s, the security situation improved and theTheme of Nicopolis was established, most likely after 886.[52][54] As the ancient capital of Epirus had been laid waste by the Slavs, the capital of the new theme became Naupaktos further south. The extent of the new province is unclear, but probably matched the extent of theMetropolis of Naupaktos, established at about the same time, encompassing the sees of Vonditsa, Aetos, Acheloos,Rogoi, Ioannina, Hadrianopolis, Photike, and Buthrotum. Vagenetia notably no longer appears as a bishopric. As the authors of theTabula Imperii Byzantini comment, it appears that "the Byzantine administration had brought the strongly Slavic-settled areas in the mainland somewhat under its control, and a certain Re-Hellenization had set in".[55] Further north, the region aroundDyrrhachium existed as thehomonymous theme possibly as early as the 9th century.[56]
WhenConstantinople fell to theFourth Crusade in 1204, thepartitio Romaniae assigned Epirus toVenice, but the Venetians were largely unable to effectively establish their authority, except over Dyrrhachium (the "Duchy of Durazzo"). The Greek nobleMichael Komnenos Doukas, who had married the daughter of a local magnate, took advantage of this, and within a few years consolidated his control over most of Epirus, first as a Venetianvassal and eventually as an independent ruler. By the time of his death in 1214/5, Michael had established a strong state, theDespotate of Epirus, with the former theme of Nicopolis at its core and Arta as its capital.[61][62] Epirus, and the city of Ioannina in particular, became a haven for Greek refugees from theLatin Empire of Constantinople for the next half century.[62]
The Despotate of Epirus ruled over Epirus and western Greece as far south as Naupaktos and the Gulf of Corinth, much of Albania (including Dyrrhachium), Thessaly, and the western portion ofMacedonia, extending its rule briefly over central Macedonia and most ofThrace following the aggressive expansionism ofTheodore Komnenos Doukas, who established theEmpire of Thessalonica in 1224.[63][64] During this time, the definition of Epirus came to encompass the entire coastal region from the Ambracian Gulf to Dyrrhachium, and the hinterland to the west up to the highest peaks of thePindus mountain range. Some of the most important cities in Epirus, such as Gjirokastër (Argyrokastron), were founded during this period.[65] The oldest reference toAlbanians in the area of Epirus proper is from a Venetian document dating to 1210, which states that "the continent facing the island of Corfu is inhabited by Albanians".[66]
Map of the southern Balkans and western Anatolia in 1410
Although Albanian clans gained control of most of the region by 1366/7, their continued division into rival clans meant that they could not establish a single central authority.[69] Ioannina became a center of Greek resistance to the Albanian clans. The Greeks of Ioannina offered power to three foreign rulers during this time, beginning withThomas II Preljubović (1367–1384), whose rule was marked by hostilities in the region, as Ioannina came under constant siege by the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans under Losha. These tribes would besiege Ioannina a second time in 1374–1375.[70][71][72] A truce was signed when Pjetër's son Gjin was betrothed to Thomas's daughter Irina, but she would soon die in the 1375 plague and hostilities would recommence.[73] Preljubović attempted to pacify the Albanians of Epirus; however, underGjin Bua Shpata, the Albanians defeated him.[74]
The reign ofEsau de' Buondelmonti (1385–1411) in Ioannina followed, and with an army that consisted of the Albanian tribes of the Mazaraki and Malakasi, he marched against thePrincipality of Gjirokastër. He was defeated and captured by Albanian noblemanGjon Zenebishi, and ransomed for 10,000 gold pieces on the intervention of the Venetian governor ofCorfu.[75] At the time the Zenebishi clan controlled the area around Gjirokastër (1386–1411), while only the city of Ioannina remained under Greek control.[76]
Carlo I Tocco (1411–1429) then assumed control of Ioannina, commencing heavy conflicts withJakob andMuriq Shpata, the Albanian leaders of theDespotate of Arta. The Shpata were originally defeated by Carlo's brotherLeonardo II Tocco at Mazoma near ancientNicopolis, but Carlo's son Torno was in turn defeated by the Albanians.[77][78] After the Tocchi succeeded in capturing Rhiniasa, Leonardo tried to take Rogoi and Carlo attempted to take Arta, but Jakob and Muriq succeeded in defending their capital for the time being. Carlo withdrew to Ioannina, but soon after was able to lure Jakob to an ambush near Vobliana: Jakob was captured and immediately executed (1 October 1416).[77][78] Carlo had effectively ended the rule of the Albanian clans in southernmost Epirus.[79]
Nevertheless, internal dissension eased the Ottoman conquest, which began with the capture of Ioannina in 1430 and continued with Arta in 1449,Angelokastro in 1460,Riniasa Castle and its environs (in what is nowPreveza) in 1463,[80] and finallyVonitsa in 1479. With the exception of several coastal Venetian possessions, this was also the end of Latin rule in mainland Greece.
TheOttomans ruled Epirus for almost 500 years. Their rule in Epirus proved particularly damaging; the region was subjected to deforestation and excessive cultivation, which damaged the soil and drove many Epirotes to emigrate so as to escape the region's pervasive poverty.[13] Nonetheless, the Ottomans did not enjoy total control of Epirus. TheHimara andZagori regions managed to successfully resist Ottoman rule and maintained a degree of independence throughout this period. The Ottomans expelled the Venetians from almost the whole area in the late 15th century.
Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the city of Ioannina attained great prosperity and became a major center of themodern Greek Enlightenment.[81][82][83][84] Numerous schools were founded, such as the Balaneios,Maroutsaia,Kaplaneios, andZosimaia, teaching subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics and physical sciences. In the 18th century, as the power of the Ottoman Empire declined, the area of Epirus became part of ade facto independent state, thePashalik of Yanina, under the rule ofAli Pasha of Tepelena, a MuslimAlbanian brigand who rose to become the provincial governor of Ioannina in 1788.[13] At the height of his power, he and his sons controlled allsouthern andcentral Albania; most of mainlandGreece, includingEpirus,Thessaly,West Macedonia, westernCentral Macedonia,Continental Greece (excludingAttica), and thePeloponnese; and parts of southwesternNorth Macedonia aroundOhrid andManastir. Ali Pasha's campaign to subjugate the confederation of the settlements ofSouli met with fierce resistance by theSouliot warriors of the mountainous area. After numerous failed attempts to defeat the Souliotes, his troops succeeded in conquering the area in 1803. On the other hand, Ali, who used Greek as official language, witnessed an increase of Greek cultural activity with the establishment of several educational institutions.[85]
When theGreek War of Independence broke out, the inhabitants of Epirus contributed greatly. Two of the founding members of theFiliki Eteria (the secret society of the Greek revolutionaries),Nikolaos Skoufas and Athanasios Tsakalov, came from theArta area and the city ofIoannina, respectively. Greece's first constitutional prime minister (1844–1847),Ioannis Kolettis, was a native of the village of Syrrako in Epirus and was a former personal physician to Ali Pasha. Ali Pasha tried to use the war as an opportunity to make himself a fully independent ruler, but was assassinated by Ottoman agents in 1822. When Greece became independent in 1830, however, Epirus remained under Ottoman rule. In 1854, during theCrimean War, a major localrebellion broke out. Although the newly found Greek state tried tacitly to support it, the rebellion was suppressed by Ottoman forces after a few months.[86] Another failed rebellion by local Greeksbroke out in 1878. During this period, theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople managed to shut down the few Albanian schools, considering teaching in Albanian a factor that would diminish its influence and lead to the creation of separate Albanian church, while publications in Albanian were banned by the Ottoman Empire.[87][88] In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Italy opened various schools in the regions ofIoannina andPreveza in order to influence the local population. These schools began to attract students from the Greek language schools, but were ultimately closed after intervention and harassment by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.[89] Throughout, the late period of Ottoman rule (from the 18th century) Greek and Aromanian population of the region suffered from Albanians raiders, that sporadically continued after Ali Pasha's death, until 1912–1913.[90]
This outcome was unpopular among local Greeks, as a substantial Greek population existed on the Albanian side of the border.[94] Among Greeks,northern Epirus was henceforth regarded asterra irredenta.[95] Local Greeks in northern Epirus revolted, declaredtheir independence and proclaimed theAutonomous Republic of Northern Epirus in February 1914.[96] After fierce guerrilla fighting, they managed to gain full autonomy under the terms of theProtocol of Corfu, signed by Albanian and Northern Epirote representatives and approved by the Great Powers. The signing of the Protocol ensured that the region would have its own administration, recognized the rights of the local Greeks and provided self-government under nominal Albanian sovereignty.[97] The Republic, however, was short-lived, as whenWorld War I broke out, Albania collapsed, and northern Epirus was alternately controlled by Greece, Italy and France at various intervals.[95][98]
Although theParis Peace Conference of 1919 awarded Northern Epirus to Greece, developments such as the Greek defeat in theGreco-Turkish War and, crucially, Italian lobbying in favor of Albania meant that Greece would not keep Northern Epirus. In 1924, the area was again ceded to Albania.[99]
In 1939, Italyoccupied Albania, and in 1940invaded Greece. The Italians were driven back into Albania, however, and Greek forces again took control of northern Epirus. The conflict marked the first tactical victory of theAllies inWorld War II.Benito Mussolini himself supervised the spring counter-offensive of his divisions in spring 1941, only to be repulsed again by the poorly equipped, but determined, Greeks.Nazi Germany thenintervened in April 1941 to avert an Italian defeat. The German military performed rapid military maneuvers throughYugoslavia and forced the encircled Greek forces of the Epirus front to surrender.
The whole of Epirus was then placed under Italianoccupation until 1943, when the Germans took over following theItalian surrender to the Allies. Due to the extensive activity of the anti-Nazi Greek resistance (mainly underEDES), the Germans carried out large scaled anti-partisan sweeps, making wide use ofNazi-collaborationist bands ofCham Albanians, who committed numerous atrocities against the civilian population.[100] They fought fiercely against the Greek partisans of the EDES, the latter being ordered by the Allied command to push them out of Greece into Albania. The violent clashes and the reprisals that followed by the Greek guerillas resulted in theexpulsion to Albania of almost the entire Cham population.[100]
With the liberation of Greece and the start of the first round of theGreek Civil War at the end of 1944, the highlands of Epirus became a major theater of guerrilla warfare between the leftistGreek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) and the right-wingNational Republican Greek League (EDES). In subsequent years (1945–1949), the mountains of Epirus also became the scene of some of the fiercest fighting of the second and bloodier round of the Greek Civil War. The final episode of the war took place onMount Grammos in 1949, ending with the defeat of the Communists. Peace returned to the region in 1949, although because of official Albanian active involvement in the civil war on the side of the communists, the formal state of war between Greece and Albania remained in effect until 1987. Another reason for the continuation of the state of war until 1987 was that during the entire period of Communist rule in Albania, the Greek population ofNorthern Epirus experienced forcedAlbanisation.[101] Although a Greek minority was recognized by theHoxha regime, this recognition only applied to an "official minority zone" consisting of 99 villages, leaving out important areas of Greek settlement, such asHimara.[95] People outside the official minority zone received no education in the Greek language, which was prohibited in public.[95] The Hoxha regime also diluted the ethnic demographics of the region by relocating Greeks living there and settling in their stead Albanians from other parts of the country.[95] Relations began to improve in the 1980s with Greece's abandonment of any territorial claims over Northern Epirus and the lifting of the official state of war between the two countries.[95]
Epirus is a predominantly rugged and mountainous region. It is largely made up of thePindus Mountains, a series of parallellimestone ridges that are a continuation of theDinaric Alps.[13][102] The Pindus mountains form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly to the east. The ridges of the Pindus are parallel to the sea and generally so steep that the valleys between them are mostly suitable for pasture rather than large-scale agriculture.[13] Altitude increases as one moves east, away from the coast, reaching a maximum of 2,637 m atMount Smolikas, the highest point in Epirus. Other important ranges includeTymfi (2,496 m at Mount Gamila),Lygkos (2,249 m), to the west and east of Smolikas respectively,Gramos (2,523 m) in the northeast, Tzoumerka (2,356 m) in the southeast, Tomaros (1,976 m) in the southwest,Mitsikeli nearIoannina (1,810 m),Mourgana (1,806 m), andNemercke/Aeoropos (2,485 m) on the border between Greece and Albania, and theCeraunian Mountains (2,000 m) nearHimara in Albania. Most of Epirus lies on the windward side of the Pindus, and the prevailing winds from the Ionian Sea make the region the rainiest in mainland Greece.[13]
Significant lowlands are to be found only near the coast, in the southwest nearArta andPreveza, in the Acheron plain betweenParamythia andFanari, betweenIgoumenitsa andSagiada, and also nearSaranda. TheZagori area is a scenic upland plateau surrounded by mountain on all sides.
The main river flowing through Epirus is theVjosë, which flows in a northwesterly direction from the Pindus mountains in Greece to its mouth north of theBay of Vlorë in Albania. Other important rivers include theAcheron river, famous for its religious significance in ancient Greece and site of theNecromanteion, theArachthos river, crossed by the historicBridge of Arta, theLouros, theThyamis or Kalamas, and the Voidomatis, a tributary of the Vjosë flowing through theVikos Gorge. The Vikos Gorge, one of the deepest in the world, forms the centerpiece of theVikos–Aoös National Park, known for its scenic beauty. The only significant lake in Epirus isLake Pamvotis, on whose shores lies the city ofIoannina, the region's largest and traditionally most important city.
The climate of Epirus isMediterranean along the coast andAlpine in the interior. Epirus is heavily forested, mainly by coniferous species. The fauna in Epirus is especially rich and features species such asbears,wolves,foxes,deer, andlynxes.
Economy
Igoumenitsa is the main port in Epirus, and links the region toItaly.
A rugged topography, poor soils, and fragmented landholdings have kept agricultural production low and have resulted in a low population density.[13] Animal husbandry is the main industry and corn the chief crop.[13] Oranges and olives are grown in the western lowlands, while tobacco is grown around Ioannina.[13] Epirus has few natural resources and industries, and the population has been depleted by migration.[13] The population is centered around Ioannina, which has the largest number of industrial establishments.[13]
^David Sacks; Lisa R. Brody; Oswyn Murray (2005).Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Facts on File Library of World History. Facts on File. p. 85.ISBN0816057222.... in a region of northwest Greece called Epirus.
^Demiraj, Bardhyl (2012). "La Maledizione dell'Epirota (1483)".Res Albanicae.I (1). Palermo:133–149. pp. 132–133.
^Skoulidas, Elias G. (2011). "Identities, Locality and Otherness in Epirus during the Late Ottoman period".Identities in the Greek world (from 1204 to the present day). European Society of Modern Greek Studies. pp. 1–3.
^Wilkes 1995, p. 92 "Appian's description of the Illyrian territories records a southern boundary with Chaonia and Thesprotia, where ancient Epirus began south of the river Aous (Vijosë)." (Map)
^Hammond 1986, p. 77: "The original home of the Hellenes was 'Hellas', the area round Dodona in Epirus, according to Aristotle. In the Iliad it was the home of Achilles' Hellenes."
^Aristotle.Meteorologica,1.14Archived 29 June 2011 at theWayback Machine: "Rather we must take the cause of all these changes to be that, just as winter occurs in the seasons of the year, so in determined periods there comes a great winter of a great year and with it excess of rain. But this excess does not always occur in the same place. The deluge in the time of Deucalion, for instance, took place chiefly in the Greek world and in it especially about ancient Hellas, the country about Dodona and the Achelous, a river which has often changed its course. Here the Selli dwelt and those who were formerly called Graeci and now Hellenes."
^Georgiev 1981, p. 192: "Late Neolithic Period: in northwestern Greece the Proto-Greek language had already been formed: this is the original home of the Greeks."
^Filos 2018, p. 215: "Epirus [...] was geographically placed on the fringe of the Greek world and remained almost until the (early) Hellenistic period on the sidelines of the political, socio-economic and cultural characteristics that characterized the southern Greek city-states and their overseas colonies from as early as the Archaic period. In that respect, Epirus shows clear similarities to neighboring Greek regions, such as Macedonia, Aetolia and Acarnania, which also stayed out of the limelight of Greek history until a relatively late period; [...] Epirus was closely related to those areas, and in fact not only in political and economic terms, but also in a cultural and linguistic manner".
^Cameron 2004, p. 141: "As for Aspestos, Achilles was honored in Epirus under that name, and the patronymic [Ἀ]σπετίδης is found in a fragmentary poem found on papyrus."
^cf. Athenian secretary: Aspetos, son of Demostratos fromKytheros c. 340 BC.
^Giakoumis 2002, p. 176: "Are we obliged to see in this a possible earlier Albanian immigration in the Epeirote lands, as Kostas Komis did in the case of the etymology of the toponym 'Preveza'? I believe that the use of hypothetical immigrations as a basis to interpret sources that indicate the presence of Albanians in the Epeirote lands prior to the thirteenth-fourteenth century is somewhat arbitrary."
^Hammond, 1976 & ps"The Albanians and in particular the Mazarakii of the Kalamas valley held firm against him. In 1385 he was assassinated by some of his own bodyguards" (Epeirotica 2.230), p. 59.
^Hutchinson, Richard Wyatt (1956).The Lord of Patras(PDF). A.G. Kalokairinos. p. 343.
^Υπουργείο Εσωτερικών, Αποκέντρωσης και Ηλεκρονικής ΔιακυβέρνησηςΠεριφέρεια Ηπείρου: "Στη δεκαετία του 1790 ο νεοελληνικός διαφωτισμός έφθασε στο κορύφωμά του. Φορέας του πνεύματος στα Ιωάννινα είναι ο Αθανάσιος Ψαλίδας."
^Hammond 1976, p. 41: "Throughout this period bands of Albanians raiders pillaged and destroyed the villages of the Vlachs and the Greeks in Epirus, northern Pindus, the lakeland of Prespa and Ochrid, and parts of western Macedonia. One Albanian leader, 'Ali the Lion', emulated the achievements of 'John the Sword' and 'Peter the Pockmark' when he established himself as Ali Pasha, independent ruler of Ioannina. He and his Albanian soldiers, recruited mainly from his homeland in the Kurvelesh and the Drin valley of North Epirus, controlled the whole of Epirus and carried their raids far into western Macedonia and Thessaly. As we have seen, they destroyed the Vlach settlements in the lakeland and weakened those farther south. After the assassination of Ali Pasha in 1822 sporadic raids by bands of Albanians were a feature of life in northern Greece until the liberation of 1912–13".
^Clogg 2002, p. 105: "In February 1913 the Greek Army seized Ioannina, the capital of Epirus. The Turks recognized the gains of the Balkan allies by the Treaty of London, in May 1913."
^Clogg 2002, p. 105 "The Second Balkan War had short duration and the Bulgarians were soon dragged to the table of negotiations. By the Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) Bulgaria was forced to accept a little favourable regulation of the borders, even if she kept a way to the Aegean, in Degeagatch (modern Alexandroupolis). The sovereignty of Greece over Crete was now recognised, but her ambition to annex Northern Epirus with its large Greek population was stopped by the annexation of the area to an independent Albania".
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