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Environmental issues are disruptions in the usual function ofecosystems.[1] Further, these issues can be caused by humans (human impact on the environment)[2] or they can be natural. These issues are considered serious when the ecosystem cannot recover in the present situation, and catastrophic if the ecosystem is projected to certainly collapse.
Environmental protection is the practice of protecting thenatural environment on the individual, organizational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the environment and humans.Environmentalism is asocial andenvironmental movement that addresses environmental issues through advocacy, legislation education, and activism.[3]
Environment destruction caused by humans is a global, ongoing problem.[4] Water pollution also cause problems to marine life.[5] Some scholars believe that the projected peak global population of roughly 9–10 billion people could live sustainably within the earth's ecosystems if humans worked to livesustainably withinplanetary boundaries.[6][7][8] The bulk of environmental impacts are caused byexcessive consumption of industrial goods by the world's wealthiest populations.[9][10][11] The UN Environmental Program, in its "Making Peace With Nature" Report in 2021, found addressing key planetary crises, like pollution, climate change and biodiversity loss, was achievable if parties work to address theSustainable Development Goals.[12]
Major current environmental issues may includeclimate change,pollution,environmental degradation, andresource depletion. Theconservation movement lobbies for protection ofendangered species and protection of anyecologically valuable natural areas,genetically modified foods andglobal warming. The UN system has adopted international frameworks for environmental issues in three key issues, which has been encoded as the "triple planetary crises": climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss.[13]
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Human impact on the environment (or anthropogenic environmental impact) refers to changes tobiophysical environments[14] and toecosystems,biodiversity, andnatural resources[15] caused directly or indirectly byhumans. Modifying the environment to fit the needs of society (as in thebuilt environment) is causing severe effects[16][17] includingglobal warming,[14][18][19]environmental degradation[14] (such asocean acidification[14][20]),mass extinction andbiodiversity loss,[21][22][23][24]ecological crisis, andecological collapse. Some human activities that cause damage (either directly or indirectly) to the environment on a global scale includepopulation growth,[25][26][27]neoliberal economic policies[28][29][30] and rapideconomic growth,[31]overconsumption,overexploitation,pollution, anddeforestation.[32] Some of the problems, including global warming and biodiversity loss, have been proposed as representingcatastrophic risks to the survival of the human species.[33][34]
The termanthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting fromhuman activity. The term was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologistAlexey Pavlov, and it was first used in English by British ecologistArthur Tansley in reference to human influences onclimax plant communities.[35] The atmospheric scientistPaul Crutzen introduced the term "Anthropocene" in the mid-1970s.[36] The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution produced from human activity since the start of theAgricultural Revolution but also applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment.[37][38][39] Many of the actions taken by humans that contribute to a heated environment stem from the burning of fossil fuel from a variety of sources, such as electricity, cars, planes, space heating, manufacturing, or the destruction of forests.[40]Pollution is the introduction ofcontaminants into thenatural environment that cause harm.[41] Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light).Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events, the word pollution generally implies that the contaminantshave a human source, such asmanufacturing,extractive industries, poorwaste management, transportation oragriculture. Pollution is often classed aspoint source (coming from a highly concentrated specific site, such as afactory,mine,construction site), ornonpoint source pollution (coming from widespread distributed sources, such asmicroplastics oragricultural runoff).
Many sources of pollution were unregulated parts ofindustrialization during the 19th and 20th centuries until the emergence of environmentalregulation and pollutionpolicy in the later half of the 20th century. Sites where historically polluting industries releasedpersistent pollutants may havelegacy pollution long after the source of the pollution is stopped. Major forms of pollution includeair pollution,water pollution,litter,noise pollution,plastic pollution,soil contamination,radioactive contamination,thermal pollution,light pollution, andvisual pollution.[42]
Pollution has widespread consequences on human andenvironmental health, having systematic impact on social and economic systems. In 2019, pollution killed approximately nine million people worldwide (about one in six deaths that year); about three-quarters of these deaths were caused byair pollution.[43][44] A 2022 literature review found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceededplanetary boundaries and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.[45][46] Pollutants frequently have outsized impacts on vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, andmarginalized communities, because polluting industries and toxic waste sites tend to be collocated with populations with less economic and political power[47].[48] This outsized impact is a core reason for the formation of theenvironmental justice movement,[49][50] and continues to be a core element ofenvironmental conflicts, particularly in theGlobal South.
Because of the impacts of these chemicals, local, country-level, and international policy have increasingly sought to regulate pollutants, resulting in increasing air and water quality standards, alongside regulation of specific waste streams. Regional and national policy is typically supervised byenvironmental agencies or ministries, while international efforts are coordinated by theUN Environmental Program and othertreaty bodies. Pollutionmitigation is an important part of all of theSustainable Development Goals.[51]
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of theenvironment throughdepletion of resources such as quality ofair,water andsoil; the destruction ofecosystems;habitat destruction; theextinction ofwildlife; andpollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.[52][53] The environmental degradation process amplifies the impact of environmental issues which leave lasting impacts on the environment.[citation needed]
Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by theHigh-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change of theUnited Nations. TheUnited Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as "the reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs".[54]
Environmental degradation comes in many types. Whennatural habitats are destroyed ornatural resources are depleted, the environment is degraded; direct environmental degradation, such as deforestation, which is readily visible; this can be caused by more indirect process, such as the build up ofplastic pollution over time or the buildup of greenhouse gases that causestipping points in the climate system. Efforts to counteract this problem includeenvironmental protection andenvironmental resources management. Mismanagement that leads to degradation can also lead toenvironmental conflict where communities organize in opposition to the forces that mismanaged the environment..jpg)
Environmental conflicts, socio-environmental conflict or ecological distribution conflicts (EDCs) aresocial conflicts caused byenvironmental degradation or byunequal distribution of environmental resources.[55][56][57] TheEnvironmental Justice Atlas documented 3,100 environmental conflicts worldwide as of April 2020 and emphasised that many more conflicts remained undocumented.[55]
Parties involved in these conflicts include locally affected communities, states, companies and investors, and social or environmental movements;[58][59] typicallyenvironmental defenders are protecting their homelands fromresource extraction orhazardous waste disposal.[55] Resource extraction and hazardous waste activities often create resource scarcities (such as byoverfishing ordeforestation), pollute the environment, and degrade the living space for humans and nature, resulting in conflict.[60] A particular case of environmental conflicts are forestry conflicts, or forest conflicts which "are broadly viewed as struggles of varying intensity between interest groups, over values and issues related to forest policy and the use of forest resources".[61] In the last decades, a growing number of these have been identified globally.[62]
Frequently environmental conflicts focus onenvironmental justice issues, therights of indigenous people, therights of peasants, or threats to communities whose livelihoods are dependent on the ocean.[55] Outcomes of local conflicts are increasingly influenced by trans-national environmental justice networks that comprise the global environmental justice movement.[55][63]
Environmental conflict can complicate response tonatural disaster or exacerbate existing conflicts – especially in the context ofgeopolitical disputes or where communities have been displaced to createenvironmental migrants.[64][57][60] The study of these conflicts is related to the fields ofecological economics,political ecology, and environmental justice.Environmental issues impose a heavy and wide-ranging economic burden affecting public health, infrastructure, productivity, ecosystems, and long-term economic growth.
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Environmental justice is asocial movement that addresses injustice that occurs when poor or marginalized communities are harmed byhazardous waste,resource extraction, and otherland uses from which they do not benefit.[70][71] The movement has generated hundreds of studies showing that exposure toenvironmental harm is inequitably distributed.[72] Additionally, many marginalized communities, includingBlack/racialized communities and theLGBTQ community, are disproportionately impacted by natural disasters.
Environmental justice is broadly defined as the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of allpeople regardless ofrace,color,national origin, orincome with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement ofenvironmental laws,regulations, andpolicies. Over time,scholars have elaborated multiple dimensions of the concept.[73]
The movementbegan in the United States in the 1980s. It was heavily influenced by theAmerican civil rights movement and focused onenvironmental racism within rich countries. The movement was later expanded to consider gender,LGBTQ people, international environmental injustice, and inequalities within marginalized groups. As the movement achieved some success in rich countries, environmental burdens were shifted to theGlobal South (as for example throughextractivism or theglobal waste trade).[74] The movement for environmental justice has thus become more global, with some of its aims now being articulated by theUnited Nations. The movement overlaps with movements forIndigenous land rights and for thehuman right to a healthy environment.[75]
The goal of the environmental justice movement is to achieveagency for marginalized communities in making environmental decisions that affect their lives. The global environmental justice movement arises from localenvironmental conflicts in whichenvironmental defenders frequently confront multi-national corporations in resource extraction or other industries. Local outcomes of these conflicts are increasingly influenced by trans-national environmental justice networks.[76][77]
Environmental justice scholars have produced a largeinterdisciplinary body ofsocial science literature that includes contributions topolitical ecology,environmental law, and theories onjustice andsustainability.[71][78][79][80][81]The 2023IPCC report highlighted the disproportionate effects of climate change on vulnerable populations. The report's findings make it clear that every increment of global warming exacerbates challenges such as extreme heatwaves, heavy rainfall, and other weather extremes, which in turn amplify risks for human health and ecosystems. With nearly half of the world's population residing in regions highly susceptible to climate change, the urgency for global actions that are both rapid and sustained is underscored. The importance of integrating diverse knowledge systems, including scientific, Indigenous, and local knowledge, into climate action is highlighted as a means to foster inclusive solutions that address the complexities of climate impacts across different communities.[82]
In addition, the report points out the critical gap in adaptation finance, noting that developing countries require significantly more resources to effectively adapt to climate challenges than what is currently available. This financial disparity raises questions about the global commitment to equitable climate action and underscores the need for a substantial increase in support and resources. The IPCC's analysis suggests that with adequate financial investment and international cooperation, it is possible to embark on a pathway towards resilience and sustainability that benefits all sections of society.[82]
Environmental laws are laws that protect the environment.[83] The term "environmental law" encompassestreaties,statutes,regulations,conventions, andpolicies designed to protect the natural environment and manage the impact of human activities onecosystems andnatural resources, such asforests,minerals, or fisheries. It addresses issues such aspollution control, resource conservation,biodiversity protection,climate change mitigation, andsustainable development. As part of both national and international legal frameworks, environmental law seeks to balance environmental preservation with economic and social needs, often through regulatory mechanisms, enforcement measures, and incentives for compliance.
The field emerged prominently in the mid-20th century as industrialization and environmental degradation spurred global awareness, culminating in landmark agreements like the 1972Stockholm Conference and the 1992Rio Declaration. Key principles include theprecautionary principle, thepolluter pays principle, andintergenerational equity. Modern environmental law intersects withhuman rights,international trade, andenergy policy.
Internationally, treaties such as theParis Agreement (2015), theKyoto Protocol (1997), and theConvention on Biological Diversity (1992) establish cooperative frameworks for addressing transboundary issues. Nationally, laws like the UK'sClean Air Act 1956 and the USToxic Substances Control Act of 1976 establish regulations to limit pollution and manage chemical safety. Enforcement varies by jurisdiction, often involving governmental agencies, judicial systems, and international organizations.Environmental impact assessments are a common way to enforce environmental law.
Challenges in environmental law include reconciling economic growth with sustainability, determining adequate levels of compensation, and addressing enforcement gaps in international contexts. The field continues to evolve in response to emerging crises such asbiodiversity loss,plastic pollution in oceans, andclimate change.Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is the assessment of theenvironmental consequences of a plan, policy, program, or actual projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. In this context, the term "environmental impact assessment" is usually used when applied to actual projects by individuals or companies and the term "strategic environmental assessment" (SEA) applies to policies, plans and programmes most often proposed by organs of state.[84][85] It is a tool ofenvironmental management forming a part of project approval and decision-making.[86] Environmental assessments may be governed by rules ofadministrative procedure regarding public participation and documentation of decision making, and may be subject to judicial review.
The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-makers consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. TheInternational Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating thebiophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made".[87] EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision-makers toaccount for environmental values in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailedenvironmental studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts.[88]
Theenvironmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement) is asocial movement that aims to protect the natural world from harmful environmental practices in order to createsustainable living.[89] In its recognition of humanity as a participant in (not an enemy of)ecosystems, the movement is centered onecology,health, as well ashuman rights.
The environmental movement is an international movement, represented by a range of environmental organizations, from enterprises tograssroots and varies from country to country. Due to its large membership, varying and strong beliefs, and occasionally speculative nature, the environmental movement is not always united in its goals. At its broadest, the movement includes private citizens, professionals,religious devotees, politicians, scientists,nonprofit organizations, and individual advocates like former Wisconsin SenatorGaylord Nelson andRachel Carson in the 20th century.
Since the 1970s, public awareness,environmental sciences,ecology, and technology have advanced to include modern focus points likeozone depletion,climate change,acid rain,mutation breeding,genetically modified crops andgenetically modified livestock.
Theclimate movement can be regarded as a sub-type of the environmental movement.Environmental issues are addressed at a regional, national or international level by government organizations.
The largest international agency, set up in 1972, is theUnited Nations Environment Programme. TheInternational Union for Conservation of Nature bringstogether 83 states, 108 government agencies, 766 Non-governmental organizations and 81 international organizations and about 10,000 experts, scientists from countries around the world.[90] Internationalnon-governmental organizations includeGreenpeace,Friends of the Earth andWorld Wide Fund for Nature. Governments enactenvironmental policy andenforceenvironmental law and this is done to differing degrees around the world.
There are an increasing number of films being produced on environmental issues, especially onclimate change andglobal warming. Al Gore's 2006 filmAn Inconvenient Truth gained commercial success and a high media profile.
Issues
Specific issues
Still increasing by roughly 80 million people per year, or more than 200,000 per day (figure 1a–b), the world population must be stabilized—and, ideally, gradually reduced—within a framework that ensures social integrity. There are proven and effective policies that strengthen human rights while lowering fertility rates and lessening the impacts of population growth on GHG emissions and biodiversity loss. These policies make family-planning services available to all people, remove barriers to their access and achieve full gender equity, including primary and secondary education as a global norm for all, especially girls and young women (Bongaarts and O'Neill 2018).
The consensus that humans are causing recent global warming is shared by 90%–100% of publishing climate scientists according to six independent studies
Carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere whenever people burn fossil fuels. Oceans play an important role in keeping the Earth's carbon cycle in balance. As the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rises, the oceans absorb a lot of it. In the ocean, carbon dioxide reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid. This causes the acidity of seawater to increase.
The overarching driver of species extinction is human population growth and increasing per capita consumption.
It is well understood that adding to the population increases CO2 emissions.
the neoliberal paradigm contributes significantly to planetary unraveling. Neoliberal thinking treats the economy and the ecosphere as separate independent systems and essentially ignores the latter.
Conservation biologists agree that humanity is on the verge of causing a mass extinction and that its primary driver is our immense and rapidly expanding global economy.
A new study evaluating models of future climate scenarios has led to the creation of the new risk categories "catastrophic" and "unknown" to characterize the range of threats posed by rapid global warming. Researchers propose that unknown risks imply existential threats to the survival of humanity.
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