Philippine English is avariety ofEnglish native to thePhilippines, including those used by the media and the vast majority of educatedFilipinos and English learners in the Philippines from adjacent Asian countries.English is taught in schools as one of the twoofficial languages of the country, the other beingFilipino, a standardized form ofTagalog. Due to the influx of Philippine English teachers overseas, Philippine English is also becoming the prevalent variety of English being learned in theFar East as taught by Filipino teachers in various Asian countries such asSouth Korea,Japan, andThailand among others.[citation needed] Due to the highly multilingual and bilingual nature of the Philippines,code-switching such asTaglish (Tagalog-infused English) andBislish (English infused with any of theBisayan languages) is prevalent across domains from casual settings to formal situations.[3][4][5][6][7][8] Philippine English is similar and related toAmerican English but in nativized form.[9][10]
Filipinos were first introduced to English when theBritish invaded and occupied Manila and Cavite in 1762 as part of theSeven Years' War. Still, this occupation had no lasting effect on English in the country. A national variety called Philippine English evolved as a result ofAmerican colonization and was arguably one of the fastest to develop in the postcolonial world. Its origins as an English language spoken by a large segment of the Philippine population can be traced to the American introduction ofpublic education, taught in the English medium of instruction. This was marked by the arrival of theThomasites in 1901, immediately during re-colonization after thePhilippine Revolution in the late 19th century up to early 1900. After a tumultuous period of colonial transition, Filipino leaders and elites, and the American colonial government alike began discussing the formation of aPhilippine national language. The retained high ethnolinguistic diversity of the new colony was due to a low penetration of Spanish under Spain's rule. Spanish was limited to amedium of instruction for thelanded elites and gentry. By the end of Spanish colonization and thePhilippine–American War in 1903, only 10% of the colonial population could speak Spanish.[11][12]
The lingering effects of Spanish amongst the general population nevertheless had notable effects on the lexical development of manyPhilippine languages, and even Philippine English, in the form of Hispanisms.[13]Tagalog was selected as the basis for a national language in 1937,[14] and has since remained so. It was re-labelled asPilipino in 1959,[15] andFilipino in 1987. With the successful establishment of American-style public education with English as a consequential medium, more than 20% of the Philippine population was reported to be able to understand and speak English just before the turn of the mid-20th century.[12] This meteoric growth was sustained post-World War II, much further through Philippine mass media (e.g., newsprint, radio, television), where English also became the dominant language,[16] and by the ratification into the current Philippine Constitution in1987, both Filipino and English were declared co-official languages, while removing Spanish as an official language. In 2020, the Philippines was ranked 27th worldwide (among 100 countries ranked) in theEF English Proficiency Index. In the same report, it was ranked 2nd in Asia next only toSingapore.[17]
Today Philippine English, as formally called based on the World Englishes framework of linguistBraj Kachru, is a recognized variety of English with its distinct lexical, phonological, and grammatical features (with considerable variations across socioeconomic groups and level of education being predictors of English proficiency in the Philippines). As the English language became highly embedded in Philippine society, it was only a matter of time before the language was indigenized to the point that it became differentiated from English varieties found in the United States, United Kingdom, or elsewhere. This, along with the formal introduction of the World Englishes (WE) framework to English language scholars in the Philippines, opened the floodgates to research on this new emerging English, which has since been branded as such as Philippine English.[18]
Philippine laws and court decisions, with extremely rare exceptions, are written solely in English. English is also used inhigher education, religious affairs, print and broadcast media, and business. Most well-educated Filipinos are bilingual and speak English as one of their languages. For highly technical subjects such as nursing, medicine, computing and mathematics, English is the preferred medium for textbooks and communication. Very few would prefer highly technical books in either Filipino or the regional language.[19][20] Movies and TV shows in English are usually not dubbed in most cable channels[21] except a few such asTagalized Movie Channel.[22]
Because English is part of thecurricula fromprimary tosecondary education, many Filipinos write and speak in fluent Philippine English, although there might be differences inpronunciation.[23] Mostschools in the Philippines, however, are staffed by teachers who are speakers of Philippine English and hence notable differences from the American English from which it was derived are observable.
The abundant supply of English speakers and competitive labor costs enabled the Philippines to become a choice destination for foreign companies wishing to establishcall centers and otheroutsourcing.[24][25][26] English proficiency sustains a major call center industry and in 2005,America Online had 1,000 people in what used to be the US Air Force'sClark Air Base in Angeles City answering ninety percent of their global e-mail inquiries.Citibank does its global ATM programming in the country, andProcter & Gamble has over 400 employees inMakati, a central Manila neighborhood, doing back office work for their Asian operations including finance, accounting, human resources and payments processing.
In 2003,Edgar W. Schneider defined aDynamic Model of the evolution of Postcolonial Englishes, positioning Philippine English in Phase 3,Nativization.[29] In 2016, Ariane Macalinga Borlongan argued in a research article that Philippine English had met the parameters set for repositioning into Phase 4,Endonormative stabilization.[30]
Philippine English traditionally followsAmerican English spelling and grammar while it shares some similarity toCommonwealth English. Philippine English follows the latter when it comes to punctuation as well as date notations. For example, a comma almost neverprecedes the final item in an enumeration (much like theAP Stylebook and other style guides in English-language journalism generally).[citation needed]
Dates are often read with a cardinal instead of an ordinal number. (Example: January 1 is pronounced as "January one" instead of "January first" or "the first of January".)
Tautologies likeredundancy andpleonasm are common despite the emphasis on avoiding them, stressing brevity and simplicity in making sentences; they are common to many speakers, especially among the older generations. The possible explanation is that the English language teachers who came to the Philippines were taught old-fashioned grammar, thus they spread that style to the students they served.
Examples are "At this point in time" and ".. will be the one ..." (or "... will be the one who will ...") instead of "now" and "... will ..." respectively - e.g., "I will be the one who will go ...", rather than "I will go ...".[31]
Collective nouns are generally singular in construction, e.g.,my family is doing well as opposed tomy family are doing well orthe group was walking as opposed tothe group were walking followingAmerican English.
Mass noun andnon-count nouns are sometimes treated as count nouns in Philippine English. Words treated as mass nouns suchfurniture andimagery in native-speaker English varieties may be treated ascount nouns (with pluralfurnitures andimageries) in Philippine English due to grammatical influence from Philippine languages. Similar tendencies also exist in non-native-speaker English varieties such asIndian English.
The past tense and past participles of the verbslearn,spell andsmell are often regular (learned,spelled,smelled) in Philippine English. These are also the case in American English.
River follows the name of the river in question following American English, e.g.,Pasig River, rather than the British convention of coming before the name, e.g.,River Thames.
Abbreviations such asMr andMrs are spelled with a final period (cf.Mr., Mrs.) following American spelling.
While prepositions before days may be omitted in American English, e.g.,She resigned Thursday, they are usually retained in Philippine English:She resigned on Thursday. However, those prepositions are usually omitted in journalistic writing.
The institutional nounshospital anduniversity sometimes do not take thedefinite article, e.g.He's in hospital andShe's at university, while sometimes they do, e.g.He's in the hospital andShe's at the university.[citation needed]
Ranges of dates useto, e.g.,Monday to Friday, rather thanMonday through Friday. This is shared with British English and is in contrast to American English.
When speaking or writing out numbers,and is not inserted before the tens, i.e.,five hundred sixty-nine rather thanfive hundred and sixty-nine. This is in contrast to British English. Additionally, the insertion ofand is also common in American English.
The prepositionto inwrite to (e.g.I'll write to you [something]) is always retained, as opposed to American usage where it may be dropped.
When referring to time, Filipinos refer to 12:30 ashalf past twelve or, alternatively,twelve thirty and do not use the Britishhalf twelve. Similarly,(a) quarter to twelve is used for 11:45 rather than(a) quarter of twelve, which is found in American English.
Totake a shower ortake a bath are the most common usages in Philippine English, following American English, whereas British English useshave a shower andhave a bath. However,bathe is as often as similar to American or British usage, but not widespread.
Directional suffix-ward(s) generally found in British English is the primary usage in Philippine English, thereforetowards,afterwards andupwards over the Americantoward,afterward andupward. However,forward is more prevalent than the chiefly Britishforwards. Philippine English speakers drop the -s when usingphrasal verbs such aslook forward to.
When readingdecimal numerals that are usually two or three digits, each numeral is read like a whole number rather than by each digit, e.g. (0).99 is(zero) point ninety-nine, instead of(zero) point nine nine or, especially in schools,ninety-nine hundredths in both British and American English. Additionally, four-digit decimals are also treated similar to how Americans read four-digit numbers with non-zero tens and ones as pairs of two-digit numbers without saying "hundred" and inserting "oh"; 3.1416 is thus "three point fourteen sixteen" and not "three point one four one six" as pronounced.
The wordcourse in the Philippines generally means the entire program of study, which may extend over several years and be made up of any number ofmodules, hence it is also practically synonymous to a degree program. This usage is due to indirect influence from Spanishcurso and its borrowed forms in Philippine languages. The usage is shared with British English.
In the Philippines, a studentstudies ormajors in a subject (although a student'smajor,concentration or, less commonly,emphasis is also used in Philippine colleges or universities to refer to the major subject of study).To major in something refers to the student's principal course of study;to study may refer to any class being taken.
Grade levels in the Philippines are namedgrade one andgrade two as opposed tofirst grade andsecond grade, similar toCanadian English.
Graduating classes in the Philippines are calledbatches. Thus, a student in the samebatch is called abatchmate.
In the Philippines, a group of students in a regularly scheduled meeting in a classroom with a teacher in a certain school year or semester or school quarter year is called asection. The teacher in charge of a specificsection in a grade level where the students for each class in a certain school year or semester does not typically change per class in a system where each subject is taught by different teachers is called aclass adviser or simply, anadviser.
A school where primary and secondary students study together is called anintegrated school.
The name of a Catholic cardinal is almost always in the pattern "[first name] Cardinal [last name]",[32] for example, Juan Cardinal de la Cruz, similar to the syntax in German and Latin,[33] unlike "Cardinal [first name] [last name]" in non-Philippine English.[34]
Catholic priests, both diocesan and those of a religious order, are titled "Reverend Father", abbreviated as "Rev. Fr." before their first and then last names, in contrast to practice in some other English-speaking nations. By contrast, "Reverend" or "Rev." before a personal name is only for deacons, for example, "Reverend Juan de la Cruz", unlike their counterparts in the United States. "The Rev." alone before priests' names is usually found in articles sourced from non-Philippine media, like the Associated Press (AP), in Philippine newspapers.
A pastor goes by "Ptr." rather than the international "Ps."
Philippine English speakers often saytwo hundred fifty or two fifty over the British and alternatively Americantwo hundred and fifty. In British and sometimes American English, the "and" comes after the hundreds (one thousand, two hundred and thirty dollars). Philippine English does not observe this.
Philippine English speakers often sayone hundred fifty instead of the Americana hundred (and) fifty.
In Philippine English, particularly in television or radio advertisements, integers can be pronounced individually in the expression of amounts. For example,on sale for ₱399 might be expressedon sale for three nine nine, though the fullthree hundredand ninety-nine pesos is also common. Philippine English follows the American Englishon sale for three ninety-nine, which is understood as ₱399; In the past this may have been understood as ₱3.99, however due to inflation, ₱3.99 is no longer a common price for goods.
Philippine English's base vocabulary generally follows those of American English, but in some instances, preferred word usage follows those of British English such as withaircon forair conditioning orcinema for amovie theater. Sometimes both the American and British usages occur concurrently in Philippine English with varying degree of prevalence, such as withoverpass/flyover orsoccer/football.
Philippine languages such as Tagalog, Cebuano or Ilocano also contributed loanwords to Philippine English, usually of names of local animal and plant life (e.g.ylang-ylang), as well as food and drink (e.g.adobo) and abstract cultural concepts (e.g.bayanihan,kilig andKKB). Spanish also have an influence on vocabulary, with loanwords such asdespedida for a farewell party,estafa forfraud,pension house for a type of guest house,rotunda for aroundabout andviand for a dish eaten together with rice.
Words which in British English (except inOxford spelling) end withise, such asrealise,recognise andorganise are spelt withize following American English:realize,recognize andorganize (exercise, however, is universal in all varieties).
Words which in British English are spelled with-ae-/-oe- such asoestrogen andmediaeval are spelled withe alone as in American English asestrogen andmedieval. Exceptions areaesthetic,amoeba andarchaeology which follow common usage in American English, but can be spelled with just ane.
French-derived words which in British English end withour, such ascolour,honour andlabour, are spelled withor following American English:color,honor andlabor. British-our spellings are sometimes used as an affectation.[citation needed]
French-derived words which in British English end withre, such asfibre,centre andmetre are usually spelled wither as in American English asfiber,center andmeter. The wordtheater (American spelling) is also often spelledtheatre (British spelling), with no preference in spelling. The British spellingcentre is also used, but it is rarely used and not accepted in many settings such as schools.
Words which in British English end withyse, such asanalyse,paralyse andcatalyse are spelled withyze following American English asanalyze,paralyze andcatalyze.
There is no preference for words spelled with-log in American English or-logue in British English in Philippine English. Some words are usually spelled with-log, likecatalog andanalog, while others are typically spelled with-logue, likemonologue ordialogue.
A double-consonantl (primarily used in British and Commonwealth English) is usually retained in Philippine English when adding suffixes to words ending inl where the consonant is unstressed, contrary to common American practice. Therefore, Philippine English favorscancelled andtravelling over the Americancanceled andtraveling.[a]
Where British English uses a single-consonantl in the wordsskilful,wilful,enrol,distil,enthral,fulfil andinstalment, Philippine English typically uses a double consonant following American English:skillful,willful,enroll,distill,enthrall,fulfill andinstallment.
The Commonwealth Englishdefence andoffence are spelleddefense andoffense following American English.
Philippine English usespractice andlicense for both nouns and verbs, following American English, rather thanlicence for the second noun andpractise for the first verb as in Commonwealth English.
Philippine English prefers spellings with silente in some words such asacknowledgement,judgement andloveable, as opposed toacknowledgment,judgment andlovable.[b]
In all other cases, Philippine English prefers the American English spelling where it differs from current British spelling, as inprogram (in all contexts) for British Englishprogramme, andguerrilla for British Englishguerilla. However,programme is often used in the sense of a leaflet listing information about a play, game or other activity.
Eid al-Adha andEid al-Fitr are mostly spelled without the hyphen and the first A is replaced with an apostrophe asEid'l Adha andEid'l Fitr respectively as opposed to the rest of the world.[35][36]
The abbreviationsnatl andgovt are often written with an apostrophe before the last letter (asnat'l andgov't) in Philippine English.
The elementsaluminium andcaesium are spelled asaluminum andcesium following American English.
There aretwo major English language keyboard layouts, the United States layout and the United Kingdom layout. Keyboards and keyboard software for the Philippine market universally use the US keyboard layout. Common special characters such asÑ (used in proper nouns and Spanish loanwords) or thePhilippine peso sign (₱, used in prices), however, are not indicated on Philippine keyboards; these are usually entered throughdead keys, keyboard shortcuts or character input aids.
Philippine English is arhotic accent mainly due to the influence ofPhilippine languages, which are the first language of most of its speakers. Another influence is the rhotic characteristic ofAmerican English, which has been a standard in the archipelago since the language was introduced through American public education.[37][38][39] This is contrary to the majority ofCommonwealth English varieties spoken in neighboring countries such asMalaysia orSingapore. The only exception to this rule is the wordMarlboro, which is frequently read asMalboro. Therefore,/r/ phonemes are pronounced in all positions.[40] However, some children ofOverseas Filipinos who are educated in Commonwealth countries (such as Australia, New Zealand, or the United Kingdom) may speak in a non-rhotic accent unless taught otherwise. Native and well-educated speakers (also called acrolectal speakers[37]) may also featureflapping and vowel sounds resembling theCalifornia vowel shift due to the influence ofHollywood movies andcall center culture mostly pegged towards the American market.[41]
For non-native speakers, Philippine English phonological features are heavily dependent on the speaker's mother tongue, although foreign languages such asSpanish have also influenced the pronunciation of English words. This is why approximations are very common, along withhypercorrections andhyperforeignisms. The most distinguishable feature of Philippine English is a lack of fricative consonants, including/f/,/v/,/θ/,/ð/,/z/, and often/ʒ/. Another feature is a general absence of the schwa/ə/; it is instead pronounced by its respective equivalent full vowel, although the r-colored variant[ɚ] has become increasingly popular in recent years.
The following consonant changes apply for many non-native speakers of the dialect:[40]
The rhotic consonant/r/ may vary between a trill[r], a flap[ɾ] and an approximant[ɹ]. The English approximant[ɹ] is pronounced by many speakers in the final letters of the word or before consonants, while the standard dialect prefers to pronounce the approximant in all positions of/r/.
The fricatives/f/ and/v/ are approximated into the stop consonants[p] and[b], respectively.
Th-stopping: The dental fricatives/θ/ and/ð/ become either the alveolar stop consonants[t] and[d] or the dental stop consonants[t̪] and[d̪], respectively. This can be also observed from speakers ofHiberno-English dialects and a number of American English speakers.
Yod-coalescence: Like most Commonwealth English variants outside Canada and sometimes in Irish English, the/dj/,/tj/ and/sj/ clusters become[dʒ],[tʃ] and[ʃ] respectively. This makes the wordsdew,tune andpharmaceutical become pronounced as[ˈdʒuː],[ˈtʃuːn] and[pärmɐˈʃuːtikäl], respectively. Yod-coalescence also occurs in some other words where other English variants either resist it or do not call for it, e.g.Calcium andcelsius are respectively[ˈkälʃʊm] and[ˈsɛlʃʊs]. Because of these, the use of yod-coalescence is another case of approximation foraspirated consonants whichPhilippine languages lack in general in words such astwelve andtop and the influence of the phonology of the mother tongues of many speaks of it.
Yod-retention is usually practiced selectively, similar to the historical Irish or British and Commonwealth English, and to a lesser extent, some speakers of English in Canada, in certain words such asnew(s) but notstudent. For that reason,maneuver is mainly pronounced also with the yod, in a somewhat hyperforeign manner, whereas all other accents drop it intrinsically. The yod is also retained infigure(d/s), thus not rhyming withbigger. However, yod-dropping is often common due to the influence of modern General American. The yod is also dropped in many words with an unstressed U, e.g.(ir)regular andmunicipal(ity). It, as retained in many words, is sometimes coalesced. More at "Yod-coalescence" above.
The fricative/ʒ/ may bedevoiced into[ʃ] in words such asmeasure. Alternatively, it can beaffricated into[dʒ] in words such asbeige.
The/z/ phoneme is devoiced into an[s]. This also includes intervocalic/s/ and the⟨ss⟩ in examples such asdissolve,possess and their derivatives,brassiere,dessert,dissolution,Missouri(an),possession andscissors, which are usually pronounced as a[z] in most other accents of English. However,Aussie is usually pronounced with[s] as in the United States.
Older speakers tend to add ani ore sound before the syllable-initial clusterssl-,sm-,sn-,sp- andst- due to Spanish influence, so the wordsstar andlipstick sounds like(i/e)star andlip(i/e)stick respectively.
Like most non-native speakers of English elsewhere, the "darkl" ([ɫ]) is merged into the usual "light"[l] equivalent.
The compound⟨ll⟩ is pronounced as apalatal lateral approximant[ʎ] in between vowels (e.g.gorilla), especially to those who were exposed to Spanish orthography. This is negligible among younger well-educated speakers.
The letter "z" is sometimes pronounced (and sometimes spelled) as "zey"/zeɪ/ like inJamaican English. However, in standard Philippine English, it is pronounced and spelled as the American "zee"[zi].
Vowels in Philippine English are pronounced according to the letter representing each, so that⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩ are generally pronounced as[a,ɛ,i,o,u], respectively.[38][40] The schwa/ə/—although a phonological feature across numerousPhilippine languages such asKaray-a,Maranao,Kapampangan, or theAbagatan (Southern) dialect ofIlocano—is absent as a separate phoneme.[39][42]
The following are the various approximations of the schwa:
Words that end in-le that succeeds a consonant (such asGoogle andcastle) are generally pronounced with an[ɛl], except for words that end-ple,-fle or-ble (apple,waffle andhumble), which are pronounced with an[ol].
The/ɪ/ in words such asknowledge orcollege, it is pronounced as adiphthong[eɪ̯], making it rhyme withage,cage,rage,page, andbeige.
The rhotic vowels/ər/ and/ɜːr/ may be pronounced as an[ɛr] (commander),[ir] (circle) or an[or] (doctor), usually by non-native speakers outside urban areas or the elderly.
The⟨a⟩ pronunciations/æ,ʌ,ɑ/ are pronounced as central vowels[ä] and[ɐ]. In the standard dialect, the open front vowel[a] may be pronounced as an allophone of/æ/.
For the above reason, words subject to thetrap–bath split, e.g.basket(ball),bath,example,laugh,master andsample can be pronounced with[a] but often not for e.g.answer(able),can't,chance andFrance. Also, themary–marry–merry merger is partial;Harry andhairy are distinct but sometimes notcarry andKerry.
The first⟨a⟩ in some words such aspatronage,patriot(ic/ism),(ex/re)patriate(d/s) and(ex/re)patriation usually have the sound of either[æ], like in British/non-Canadian Commonwealth or Irish English, or sometimes[ä], rather than[eɪ] in the United States and Canada. Moreover, the⟨a⟩ in the unstressed-ative suffix is reduced to either the schwa or[a], becoming[-ətɪv] as in Britain and Ireland, for words stressed on the second syllable such asadministrative,investigative,qualitative, sometimesinnovative, and usuallylegislative.Administrative is also erroneously stressed on the third syllable. This does not apply tonegative,alternative orinitiative.⟨a⟩ as the unstresseda- prefix, calledalpha privative, is also the schwa or[a] before stems that begin with consonants, e.g.apolitical,asymmetric orasymmetry,asymptomatic,atypical, etc.
The/ɪ/ phoneme may be merged or replaced by the longer[i] for some speakers. The wordspeel andpill might sound the same.
The/ɒ/ or/ʌ/ may be enunciated as an[o] (color or eventomorrow,sorry,sorrow, etc. like in Canada) or an[ɐ] (not).
Theu sound from the digraphqu may be dropped beforee andi in some words such astranquilize(r) andcolloquial likely due to Spanish influence.
The/ʌ/ in namelycouple anddouble may also be enunciated as an[o] or, rarely, as an[a].
The/ʌ/ in namelyculture andultimate is sometimes enunciated as an[ʊ], partly similar to accents in theUnited Kingdom (exceptScotland) without thefoot–strut split.
Distinct non-native emphasis or stress is common. For example, the wordsceremony andArabic are emphasized on the second syllable (as[sɛREmoni] and[ARAbik] respectively) as another result of indirect Spanish influence. Additionally, words ending in -ary such asbeneficiary,complementary,elementary,judiciary andsupplementary are treated as paroxytones or stressed on the /a/, rather than as proparoxytones or the preceding syllable, a hyperforeignism from the Spanish-derived-aria/-arya and-ario/-aryo.
Many Filipinos often have distinct non-native English pronunciation, and many fall under differentlectal variations (i.e. basilectal, mesolectal, acrolectal).[37] SomePhilippine languages (e.g.Ibanag,Itawis,Surigaonon,Tausug) feature certain unique phonemes such as[dʒ],[f],[v], and[z], which are also present in English. However, Filipinos' first languages (such asTagalog) have generally different phonological repertoires (if not more simplified compared to English), and this leads to mis- or distinct pronunciations particularly among basilectal and to some extent mesolectal speakers.
^In some words such ascancelled, the -ll- spelling is also acceptable in American English.
^The title of one ofEat Bulaga!'s segments is officially spelled "Bawal Judgmental" with the American spellingjudgmental; however, many netizens spell it using Britishjudgemental (therefore, "Bawal Judgemental").
^Aside from the 12-hour clock, the Philippines also uses 24-hour clock format as the personal preference of some Filipino people. Smartwatches sold in the Philippines are programmed to display a 24-hour clock as a default function. Even smartphones, laptops, or personal computers can be set to a 12-hour clock format also being programmed to 24 as what they preferred to use. But still pronounced as 12-hour orally.
^Bautista, Ma. Lourdes (1998). "Tagalog-English code-switching and the lexicon of Philippine English".Asian Englishes.1 (1):51–67.doi:10.1080/13488678.1998.10800994.
^Dayag, Danilo (2002). "Code-switching in Philippine print ads: A syntactic-pragmatic description".Philippine Journal of Linguistics.33 (1):34–52.
^Bernardo, Andrew (2005). "Bilingual code-switching as a resource for learning and teaching: Alternative reflections on the language and education issue in the Philippines". In Dayag, Danilo; Quakenbush, J. Stephen (eds.).Linguistics and Language Education in the Philippines and Beyond: A Festschrift in Honor of Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista. Linguistic Society of the Philippines. pp. 151–169.
^abLlamzon, Teodoro (1968). "On Tagalog as a dominant language".Philippine Studies.16 (4):729–749.
^Sibayan, Bonifacio (2000). "Resulting patterns of sociolinguistic, socioeconomic, and cultural practice and behavior after more than four hundred years of language policy and practice in the Philippines". In Bautista, Ma. Lourdes; Llamzon, Teodoro; Sibayan, Bonifacio (eds.).Parangal cang Brother Andrew: Festschrift for Andrew Gonazlez on his sixtieth birthday. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines. pp. 247–261.
^Author David Crystal remarks that English is used in technical contexts for intelligibility, andTaglish andBislish are used in social contexts for identity, noting that similar situations exist in other countries (e.g., as withSinglish). SeeCrystal, David (2003).English as a Global Language (2, illustrated, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 189.ISBN0-521-53032-6.
^Espinosa, Doray (1997)."English in the Philippines".Global Issues in Language Education (26). Language Institute of Japan: 9. Archived fromthe original on December 29, 2010. RetrievedMarch 13, 2011.
^Examples:CitingCebu Daily News, "So if they see policemen about to conduct a security survey, they should ask me first because I will be the one who will know about it. They will have to talk to me,","Security survey for Lapu banks suggested". Philippine Daily Inquirer. March 17, 2008. Archived fromthe original on September 6, 2011. RetrievedSeptember 3, 2008.; "If I will be the one who will talk and explain, that will be self-serving,"Anselmo Roque (January 18, 2007)."Ecija school faculty bares university exec's mess".Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived fromthe original on March 5, 2007. RetrievedSeptember 3, 2008.;"Whoever wins on the issue of secret balloting will be the one who will win the speakership,",Norman Bordadora (July 22, 2007)."Arroyo can deliver SONA sans Speaker—Salonga".Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived fromthe original on August 9, 2007. RetrievedSeptember 3, 2008..
^abLlamzon, T. A. (1997). "The phonology of Philippine English". In Bautista, Ma. Lourdes (ed.).English is an Asian Language: The Philippine Context. The Macquarie Library Pty. Ltd. pp. 41–48.
^abBautista, Ma. Lourdes; Gonzalez, Andrew (2009). "Southeast Asian Englishes". In Kachru, Braj; Kachru, Yamuna; Nelson, Cecil (eds.).English is an Asian Language: The Philippine Context. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 130–144.
^Tayao, Ma. Lourdes (2008a). "Philippine English: Phonology". In Mesthrie, R. (ed.).Varieties of English 4: Africa, South and Southeast Asia. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 292–306.
