England's terrain chiefly consists of low hills andplains, especially in thecentre andsouth. Upland and mountainous terrain is mostly found in thenorth and west, includingDartmoor, theLake District, thePennines, and theShropshire Hills. TheLondon metropolitan area has a population of over 15 million as of 2025, representing the United Kingdom's largest metropolitan area. England's population of 56.3 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom, largely concentrated around London, theSouth East, and conurbations in theMidlands, theNorth West, theNorth East, andYorkshire, which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.[13]
The name "England" is derived from theOld English nameEnglaland, which means "land of theAngles".[14] The Angles were one of theGermanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during theEarly Middle Ages. They came from theAngeln region of what is now the German state ofSchleswig-Holstein.[15] The earliest recorded use of the term, as "Engla londe", is in the late-ninth-century translation into Old English ofBede'sEcclesiastical History of the English People. The term was then used to mean "the land inhabited by the English", and it included English people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of the English kingdom ofNorthumbria. TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that theDomesday Book of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later theChronicle stated that KingMalcolm III went "out of Scotlande intoLothian in Englaland", thus using it in the more ancient sense.[16]
The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work byTacitus,Germania, in which theLatin wordAnglii is used.[17] The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, anangular shape.[18] How and why a term derived from the name of this tribe, rather than others such as theSaxons, came to be used for the entire country is not known, but it seems this is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in BritainAngli Saxones or English Saxons to distinguish them from continental Saxons (Eald-Seaxe) of Old Saxony in Germany.[19] InScottish Gaelic, the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England (Sasunn);[20] similarly, theWelsh name for the English language isSaesneg. A romantic name for England isLoegria, related to the Welsh word for England,Lloegr, and made popular by its use inArthurian legend.Albion is also applied to England in a more poetic capacity,[21] though its original meaning is the island of Britain as a whole.
The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that ofHomo antecessor, dating to about 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago.[22] Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during theUpper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years.[23] After thelast ice age only large mammals such asmammoths,bison andwoolly rhinoceros remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when theice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of theIberian Peninsula.[24] The sea level was lower than the present day and Britain was connected byland bridge to Ireland andEurasia.[25]As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later.Neolithic farmers from the Iberian Peninsulamigrated to the region around 4100 BC.[26]
TheBeaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores.[27] It was during this time that majorNeolithic monuments such asStonehenge (phase III) andAvebury were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people madebronze, and later iron from iron ores. The development of ironsmelting allowed the construction of betterploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, withCeltic fields), as well as the production of more effective weapons.[28]
During theIron Age,Celtic culture, deriving from theHallstatt andLa Tène cultures, arrived from Central Europe.Brythonic was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according toPtolemy'sGeographia there were around 20 tribes in the area. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of theRoman Republic attempted toinvade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up aclient king from theTrinovantes.
The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of EmperorClaudius, subsequentlyconquering much of Britain, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire asBritannia province.[29] The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were theCatuvellauni led byCaratacus. Later, an uprising led byBoudica, Queen of theIceni, ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at theBattle of Watling Street.[30] The author of one study of Roman Britain suggested that from 43 AD to 84 AD, the Roman invaders killed somewhere between 100,000 and 250,000 people from a population of perhaps 2,000,000.[31] This era saw aGreco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction ofRoman law,Roman architecture,aqueducts,sewers, many agricultural items and silk.[32] In the 3rd century, EmperorSeptimius Severus died atEboracum (nowYork), whereConstantine was subsequently proclaimed emperor a century later.[33]
There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According toBede, missionaries were sent from Rome byEleutherius at the request of the chieftainLucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction throughJoseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain.[34] By 410, during thedecline of the Roman Empire, Britain was left exposed by theend of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars.[35] Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished. This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology. Local "congregations" were centred in the monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman-dominated church.[36]
Roman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Saxons,Angles,Jutes and Frisians who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province. These groups then began to settle in increasing numbers over the course of the fifth and sixth centuries, initially in the eastern part of the country.[35] Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at theBattle of Mount Badon, but subsequently resumed, overrunning the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area underBrittonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as aDark Age. Details of theAnglo-Saxon settlement of Britain are consequently subject to considerable disagreement; the emerging consensus is that it occurred on a large scale in the south and east but was less substantial to the north and west, where Celtic languages continued to be spoken even in areas under Anglo-Saxon control.[37][38] Roman-dominated Christianity had, in general, been replaced in the conquered territories byAnglo-Saxon paganism, but wasreintroduced by missionaries from Rome led byAugustine from 597.[39] Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at theCouncil of Whitby (664), which was ostensibly abouttonsures (clerical haircuts) and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice.[36]
During the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms includingNorthumbria,Mercia,Wessex,East Anglia,Essex,Kent andSussex. Over the following centuries, this process of political consolidation continued.[40] The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence.[41] In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by theDanes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex underAlfred the Great was left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors, it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of theDanelaw. This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished underÆthelstan in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts byEadred in 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom bySweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his sonCnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-livedNorth Sea Empire that also includedDenmark andNorway. However, the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession ofEdward the Confessor in 1042.
A dispute over the succession to Edward led to an unsuccessful Norwegian Invasion in September 1066 close to York in the North, and the successfulNorman Conquest in October 1066, accomplished by an army led byDuke William of Normandy invading at Hastings late September 1066.[42] TheNormans themselves originated fromScandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.[43] This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language.[44]
Subsequently, theHouse of Plantagenet fromAnjou inherited the English throne underHenry II, adding England to the buddingAngevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France includingAquitaine.[45] They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs beingRichard I,Edward I,Edward III andHenry V.[45] The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing ofMagna Carta, an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen. Catholicmonasticism flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. ThePrincipality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century[46] and theLordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by the Pope. During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and theHouse of Valois claimed to be legitimate claimants to theHouse of Capet and of France; the two powers clashed in theHundred Years' War.[47] TheBlack Death epidemichit England; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England'sinhabitants.[48]
Between 1453 and 1487, a civil war known as theWar of the Roses waged between the two branches of the royal family, theYorkists andLancastrians.[49] Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family theTudors, a branch of the Lancastrians headed byHenry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at theBattle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist kingRichard III was killed.[50]
During theTudor period, England began to developnaval skills, and exploration intensified in theAge of Discovery.[51]Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under theActs of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of theChurch of England. In contrast with much of EuropeanProtestantism, theroots of the split were more political than theological.[e] He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the1535–1542 acts. There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters,Mary I andElizabeth I. The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy ofAnglicanism. TheElizabethan era is the epoch in the Tudor age of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I ("the Virgin Queen"). Historians often depict it as thegolden age in English history that represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of great art, drama, poetry, music and literature.[53] England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government.[54]
Competing withSpain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorerWalter Raleigh inVirginia and namedRoanoke. The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship.[55] With theEast India Company, England also competed with theDutch andFrench in the East. During the Elizabethan period, England was at war with Spain. Anarmada sailed from Spain in 1588 as part of a wider plan to invade England and re-establish a Catholic monarchy. The plan was thwarted by bad coordination, stormy weather and successful harrying attacks by an English fleet underLord Howard of Effingham. This failure did not end the threat: Spain launched two further armadas, in1596 and1597, but both were driven back by storms.
The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when theKing of Scots,James VI, a kingdom which had been a long-time rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I, thereby creating apersonal union.[56] He styled himselfKing of Great Britain, although this had no basis in English law.[57] Under the auspices of James VI and I the AuthorisedKing James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century.
Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, theEnglish Civil War was fought between the supporters ofParliament and those of KingCharles I, known colloquially asRoundheads andCavaliers respectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifacetedWars of the Three Kingdoms, involvingScotland andIreland. The Parliamentarians were victorious,Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by theCommonwealth. Leader of the Parliament forces,Oliver Cromwell declared himselfLord Protector in 1653; a period ofpersonal rule followed.[58] After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his sonRichard as Lord Protector,Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called theRestoration. With the reopening of theatres, fine arts, literature and performing arts flourished throughout the Restoration of the "Merry Monarch" Charles II.[59] After theGlorious Revolution of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with theBill of Rights in 1689. Amongst the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament.[60] Also since that time, no British monarch has entered theHouse of Commons when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at theState Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch.[61] With the founding of theRoyal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged.
In 1666 theGreat Fire of London gutted the city of London, but it was rebuilt shortly afterward with many significant buildings designed by SirChristopher Wren.[62] By the mid-to-late 17th century, two political factions had emerged – theTories andWhigs. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic kingJames II, some of them, along with the Whigs, during theRevolution of 1688 invited the DutchPrince William of Orange to defeat James and become the king. Some English people, especially in the north, wereJacobites and continued to support James and his sons. Under theStuart dynasty England expanded in trade, finance and prosperity. The Royal Navy developed Europe's largest merchant fleet.[63] After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed,[64] the two countries joined inpolitical union, to create theKingdom of Great Britain in 1707.[56] To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate.[65]
Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and otherEnglish initiatives combined with theScottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth inBritish overseas trade protected by theRoyal Navy paved the way for the establishment of theBritish Empire. Domestically it drove theIndustrial Revolution, a period of profound change in thesocioeconomic and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development.[66] The opening of Northwest England'sBridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in thecanal age in Britain.[67] In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway – theStockton and Darlington Railway – opened to the public.[67]
London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during theVictorian era, and trade within the British Empire – as well as the standing of the British military and navy – was prestigious.[74] Technologically, this era saw many innovations that proved key to the United Kingdom's power and prosperity.[75] Political agitation at home from radicals such as theChartists and thesuffragettes enabled legislative reform anduniversal suffrage.[76]
Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of theAllies.[f] Two decades later, inWorld War II, the United Kingdom was again one of theAllies. Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids duringthe Blitz. Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapiddecolonisation, and there was a speeding-up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport andFrank Whittle's development of thejet engine led to widerair travel.[78] Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of theNational Health Service in 1948, providingpublicly funded health care to all permanent residents free at the point of need. Combined, these prompted the reform oflocal government in England in the mid-20th century.[79]
Since the late 20th century theadministration of the United Kingdom has moved towardsdevolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.[82]England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom.[83] Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism.[84] There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected byreferendum.[85]
TheEnglish law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis ofcommon law[93] legal systems used in mostCommonwealth countries[94] and the United States (exceptLouisiana). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of theCourts of England and Wales continued, under theTreaty of Union, as a separate legal system fromthe one used in Scotland. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge oflegal precedent –stare decisis – to the facts before them.[95]
Outside the London region, England's highest tier is the 48ceremonial counties.[103] These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference. Of these, 38 developed gradually since theMiddle Ages; these were reformed to 51 in 1974 and to their current number in 1996.[104] Each has aLord Lieutenant andHigh Sheriff; these posts are used to represent theBritish monarch locally.[103] Some counties, such asHerefordshire, are only divided further into civil parishes. The royal county of Berkshire and the metropolitan counties have different types of status to other ceremonial counties.[105]
The second tier is made up ofcombined authorities and the 27county-tiershire counties. In 1974, all ceremonial counties were two-tier; and with the metropolitan county tier phased out, the 1996 reform separated the ceremonial county and the administrative county tier.
Administratively, London is divided between 33local government districts: the 32London boroughs and theCity of London.[108] The 32 London boroughs form the ceremonial county of Greater London, with the City of London being a separate ceremonial county.
Geographically, England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as theIsle of Wight and theIsles of Scilly. It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom:to the north by Scotland andto the west by Wales.
England is closer than any other part of mainland Britain to the European continent. It is separated fromFrance (Hauts-de-France) by a 21-mile (34 km)[109] sea gap, though the two countries are connected by theChannel Tunnel nearFolkestone.[110] England also has shores on theIrish Sea,North Sea and Atlantic Ocean.
Most of England's landscape consists of low hills and plains, with upland and mountainous terrain in the north and west of the country. The northern uplands include thePennines, a chain of uplands dividing east and west, the Lake District mountains in Cumbria, and theCheviot Hills, straddling the border between England and Scotland. The highest point in England, at 978 metres (3,209 ft), isScafell Pike in the Lake District.[114] TheShropshire Hills are near Wales whileDartmoor andExmoor are two upland areas in the south-west of the country. The approximate dividing line between terrain types is often indicated by theTees–Exe line.[115]
The Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of thePaleozoic Era around 300 million years ago.[116] Their geological composition includes, amongst others,sandstone andlimestone, and also coal. There arekarst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts ofYorkshire andDerbyshire. The Pennine landscape is highmoorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain twonational parks, theYorkshire Dales and thePeak District. In theWest Country, Dartmoor and Exmoor of the Southwest Peninsula include upland moorland supported by granite.[117]
England has atemperatemaritime climate: it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 °C (32 °F) in winter and not much higher than 32 °C (90 °F) in summer.[118] The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on theEnglish coast, while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October.[118] Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year.
Important influences on the climate of England are its proximity to theAtlantic Ocean, its northernlatitude and the warming of the sea by theGulf Stream.[118] Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of theLake District receive more rain than anywhere else in the country.[118] Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was 40.3 °C (104.5 °F) on 19 July 2022 atConingsby,Lincolnshire,[119] while the lowest was −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 January 1982 inEdgmond, Shropshire.[120]
The fauna of England is similar to that of other areas in theBritish Isles with a wide range of vertebrate and invertebrate life in a diverse range of habitats.[122]National nature reserves in England are designated byNatural England as key places forwildlife and natural features in England. They were established to protect the most significant areas of habitat and of geological formations. NNRs are managed on behalf of the nation, many by Natural England themselves, but also by non-governmental organisations, including the members ofThe Wildlife Trusts partnership, theNational Trust, and theRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds. There are 221 NNRs in England covering 110,000 hectares (1,100 square kilometres). Often they contain rare species or nationally important populations of plants and animals.[123].TheEnvironment Agency is a non-departmental public body, established in 1995 and sponsored by theDepartment for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs with responsibilities relating to the protection and enhancement of the environment in England.[124] TheSecretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs is the minister responsible for environmental protection, agriculture, fisheries and rural communities in England.[125]
England has atemperate oceanic climate in most areas, lacking extremes of cold or heat, but does have a few small areas ofsubarctic and warmer areas inthe South West. Towards theNorth of England the climate becomes colder and most of England's mountains and high hills are located here and have a major impact on the climate and thus the local fauna of the areas.Deciduous woodlands are common across all of England and provide a great habitat for much of England's wildlife, but these give way in northern and upland areas of England toconiferous forests (mainly plantations) which also benefit certain forms of wildlife. Some species have adapted to the expanded urban environment, particularly thered fox, which is the most successfulurban mammal after thebrown rat, and other animals such ascommon wood pigeon, both of which thrive in urban and suburban areas.[127]
The economy of England is the largest part of theUK's economy.[132] England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularlyaerospace, thearms industry, and thesoftware industry. London, home to theLondon Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's mainstock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there.[133] As of 2025, London is the largest financial centre in Europe and the second largest in the world.[134]
London has been named as the fastest growing technology hub in Europe, with England having over 100 unique tech companies with a value of $1 billion or more.[135][136] TheBank of England, founded in 1694 as private banker to the government of England and astate-owned institution since 1946, is the United Kingdom'scentral bank.[137] The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes inEngland and Wales, although not in other parts of the UK. The government has devolved responsibility to the bank'sMonetary Policy Committee for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.[138]
Aston Martin manufacture luxury vehicles in England.
England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a moreservice industry-oriented economy.[81] Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated bypharmaceuticals, automotives,crude oil and petroleum from the English parts ofNorth Sea oil along withWytch Farm,aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages.[139] Thecreative industries accounted for 7 per cent GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6 per cent per annum between 1997 and 2005.[140]
Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force.[141] Two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the remainder to arable crops.[142] The main crops that are grown arewheat,barley,oats,potatoes, andsugar beets. England retains a significant fishing industry. Its fleets bring home a variety of fish, ranging fromsole toherring. England is also rich in natural resources includingcoal,petroleum,natural gas,tin,limestone,iron ore,salt,clay,chalk,gypsum,lead, and silica.[143]
The Father of Railways,George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, theLiverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage,Matthew Boulton (business partner ofJames Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.[147] The physicianEdward Jenner'ssmallpox vaccine is said to have "saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."[148]
England has a dense and modern transportation infrastructure. There aremany motorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as theA1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle[167] (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is theM6, fromRugby through theNorth West up to theAnglo-Scottish border, a distance of 232 miles (373 km).[167] Other major routes include: theM1 from London to Leeds, theM25 which encircles London, theM60 which encircles Manchester, theM4 from London to South Wales, theM62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and theM5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.[167]
London St Pancras International is one of London's main domestic and international transport hubs providing both commuter rail and high-speed rail services across the UK and to Paris,Lille andBrussels.
Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825.[170] Much of Britain's 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, theChannel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994.
By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including from Liverpool to Ireland and the Isle of Man, and Hull to the Netherlands and Belgium.[176] There are around 4,400 miles (7,100 km) of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by theCanal & River Trust,[176] however, water transport is very limited. TheRiver Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at thePort of Tilbury in theThames Estuary, one of the United Kingdom's three major ports.[176]
Successive governments have outlined numerous commitments to reducecarbon dioxide emissions. Notably, the UK isone of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply.[178] Wind power contributed 26.8% of UK electricity generation in 2022.[179] England is home toHornsea 2, the largest offshore wind farm in the world, situated in waters roughly 89 kilometres off the coast of Yorkshire.[180]
TheClimate Change Act 2008 was passed in Parliament with an overwhelming majority across political parties. It sets out emission reduction targets that the UK must comply with legally. It represents the first global legally bindingclimate change mitigation target set by a country.[181]UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limitinggreenhouse gas emissions, while meeting energy demand. Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country'senergy mix through changes in costs.[182]
TheNational Health Service (NHS), is the publicly fundedhealthcare system responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of theNational Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of theBeveridge Report, prepared by the economist and social reformer,William Beveridge.[187] The NHS is largely funded by general taxation andNational Insurance payments;[188] it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care.[189]
The averagelife expectancy is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the fourcountries of the United Kingdom.[191] The south of England has a higher life expectancy than the north, but regional differences seem to be slowly narrowing: between 1991–1993 and 2012–2014, life expectancy in the North East increased by 6.0 years and in the North West by 5.8 years.[191]
Themetropolitan andnon-metropolitan counties, colour-coded to show populationPopulation of England and Wales by administrative areas. Their size shows their population, with some approximation. Each group of squares in the map key is 20% of total number of districts.
With over 56 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total.[4] England taken as a unit and measured against international states would be the 26th largestcountry by population in the world.[192]
In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were fromethnic minority families,[202] and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%.[203] About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration.[204]
English, today widely spoken around the world,[207] originated in what is now England, where it remains the principal tongue. According to a 2011 census, it is spoken well or very well by 98% of the population[208]
In the 2021 census, 46.3% of the population of England specified their religion as Christian, 36.7% answered that they had no religion, 6.7% specified that they wereMuslim, while 4.3% of the population belongs to other religions and 6% did not give an answer.[217] Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England. Theestablished church of England is theChurch of England,[218] which left communion withRome in the 1530s whenHenry VIII was unable to annul his marriage toCatherine of Aragon. The church regards itself as both Catholic andProtestant.[219]
Especially since the 1950s, religions from theformer British colonies have grown in numbers, due to immigration.Islam is the most common of these, now accounting for around 5% of the population in England.[227]Hinduism,Sikhism andBuddhism are next in number, adding up to 2.8% combined,[227] introduced from India andSoutheast Asia.[227]
TheDepartment for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education.[229] State-funded schools are attended by about 93% of English schoolchildren.[230] Education is the responsibility of theSecretary of State for Education.[231]
Children between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or anEarly Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. State-funded schools are obliged by law to teach theNational Curriculum; basic areas of learning include English literature, English language, mathematics, science, art & design, citizenship, history, geography, religious education, design & technology, computing, ancient & modern languages, music, and physical education.[232]
TheUniversity of Oxford was founded in 1096, making it the world's second-oldest university.
TheProgramme for International Student Assessment coordinated by theOECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 13th in the world in literacy, mathematics, and science with the average British student scoring 503.7, well above the OECD average of 493.[233]
After finishing compulsory education, students takeGCSE examinations. Students may then opt to continue intofurther education for two years.Further education colleges (particularlysixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site.A-level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university. Further education covers a wide curriculum of study andapprenticeships, includingT-levels,BTEC,NVQ and others.Tertiary colleges provide both academic and vocational courses.[236]
Higher education
Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for anacademic degree. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which arepublic institutions. TheDepartment for Business, Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England.[237] Students are generally entitled tostudent loans to covertuition fees and living costs.[j] The first degree offered to undergraduates is thebachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or a doctorate, which takes three or more years.[239]
Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; theRoyal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence ofromanticism during Victorian period, aGothic Revival was launched. In addition to this, around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such asThe Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s variousmodernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.[k]
The landscape garden at Stourhead. Inspired by the greatlandscape artists of the seventeenth century, the landscape garden was described as a "living work of art" when first opened in the 1750s.[252]
Landscape gardening, as developed byCapability Brown, set an international trend for theEnglish landscape garden. Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits. The English garden presented an idealised view of nature. At large country houses, the English garden usually included lakes, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples,Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.[253]
English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings includepixies,giants,elves,bogeymen,trolls,goblins anddwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales featuringOffa of Angel andWayland the Smith,[257] others date from after the Norman invasion. The legends featuringRobin Hood and hisMerry Men ofSherwood, and their battles with theSheriff of Nottingham, are amongst the best-known of these.[258]
Since theearly modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.[266] During theMiddle Ages and the Renaissance, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during theIndustrial Revolution with increasing urbanisation. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings inRestaurant'sbest restaurant in the world charts.[267]
This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, this earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, this other Eden, demi-paradise; this fortress, built by nature for herself. This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.
London'sBritish Museum holds more than seven million objects,[317] one of the largest and most comprehensive collections in the world,[318] illustrating and documenting global human culture from its beginnings to the present. TheBritish Library in London is thenational library and is one of the world's largestresearch libraries, holding over 150 million items in almost all known languages and formats, including around 25 million books.[319][320] TheNational Gallery inTrafalgar Square houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.[321] TheTate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host theTurner Prize.[322]
TheSecretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport has overall responsibility for cultural property and heritage.[323][324] Ablue plaque, the oldesthistorical marker scheme in the world, is a permanent sign installed in a public place in England to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event. In 2011 there were around 1,600 museums in England.[325] Entry to most museums and galleries is free.[326]London is one of the world's most visited cities, regularly taking the top five most visited cities inEurope. It is considered a global centre of finance, art and culture.[327]
MediaCity in Manchester is the largest media-production facility in Europe.[328]
TheBBC, founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.[329][330] It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by thetelevision licence.[331][332] TheBBC World Service is aninternational broadcaster owned and operated by theBBC. It is the world's largest of any kind.[333] It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.[334][335]
London dominates the media sector in England: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, althoughManchester is also a significant national media centre. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.[336] National newspapers produced in England includeThe Times,The Guardian,The Daily Telegraph, and theFinancial Times.[337]
Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period amongst the farming and metalworking communities of theWeald.[346] TheEngland cricket team is a composite England and Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries isThe Ashes series between England andAustralia, contested since 1882.Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket".[347] After winning the2019 Cricket World Cup, England became the first country to win the World Cups in football, rugby union, and cricket.[348]
Tennis was created in Birmingham in the late 19th century, andthe Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious.[355] Wimbledon has a major place in the English cultural calendar.[356]
Inboxing, under theMarquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies.[357]
Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, thethoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use inhorse racing. TheNational Hunt horse race theGrand National, is held annually atAintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, and three-time winnerRed Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history.[358]
Darts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, it is a traditionalpub game.[363][364] Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games issnooker, and England has produced several world champions.
The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitivesailing; founding and winning some of the world's most famous international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including thematch race, a regatta, and theAmerica's Cup.
The St George's Cross has been the nationalflag of England since the 13th century. Originally, the flag was used by the maritimeRepublic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to theDoge of Genoa from 1190 onwards so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean.A red cross was a symbol for manyCrusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries, and became associated withSaint George.[365] Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of theUnion Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by KingJames I.[225] During theEnglish Civil War andInterregnum, theNew Model Army's standards and theCommonwealth'sGreat Seal both incorporated the flag of Saint George.[366][367]
There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including theTudor rose, the nation'sfloral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on theRoyal Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of theWars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.[368] It is asyncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of theYorkists and the red rose of theLancastrians. It is also known as theRose of England.[369] Theoak tree is a symbol of England: theRoyal Oak symbol andOak Apple Day commemorate the escape of KingCharles II after his father's execution, when he hid in an oak to avoid detection by the parliamentarians before safely reaching exile.
^England has no official anthem, as such it typically uses the anthem of the United Kingdom,God Save The King at international events, although it sometimes makes use of other English patriotic songs such asLand of Hope and Glory and the hymnJerusalem.
^ONS Standard Area Measurement, 'area to mean high water excluding inland water'
^ONS Standard Area Measurement, 'total extent of the realm' (area to mean low water)
^AsRoger Scruton explains, "The Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the "Reformation Parliament" of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not make substantial change in doctrine until later."[52]
^Figure of 550,000 military deaths is for England and Wales.[77]
^For instance, in 1980 around 50 millionAmericans claimedEnglish ancestry.[194] In Canada there are around 6.5 millionCanadians who claimEnglish ancestry.[195] Around 70% ofAustralians in 1999 denoted their origins asAnglo-Celtic, a category which includes all peoples from Great Britain and Ireland.[196] Chileans ofEnglish descent are somewhat of an anomaly in thatChile itself was never part of the British Empire, but today there are around 420,000 people of English origins living there.[197]
^People who strictly identified as "Pagan". Other Pagan paths, such as Wicca or Druidism, have not been included in this number.[228]
^People who strictly identified as "Wiccan". Other Pagan paths, such as Druidism, and general "Pagan" have not been included in this number.[228]
^Students attending English universities now have to pay tuition fees towards the cost of their education, as do English students who choose to attend university in Scotland. Scottish students attending Scottish universities have their fees paid by the devolved Scottish Parliament.[238]
^These tales may have come to prominence, at least in part, as an attempt by the Norman ruling elite to legitimise their rule of the British Isles, findingAnglo-Saxon history ill-suited to the task during an era when members of the deposedHouse of Wessex, especiallyEdgar the Ætheling and his nephews of the ScottishHouse of Dunkeld, were still active in the isles.[260][262] AlsoMichael Wood explains; "Over the centuries the figure of Arthur became a symbol of British history – a way of explaining the matter of Britain, the relationship between the Saxons and the Celts, and a way of exorcising ghosts and healing the wounds of the past."[259]
^Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990),Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press. p. 248.ISBN0-521-34804-8.
^Wohleber, Curt (Spring 2006)."The Vacuum Cleaner".Invention & Technology Magazine. American Heritage Publishing. Archived fromthe original on 13 March 2010. Retrieved8 December 2010.
^Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004).Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes. London: Routledge. pp. 98–100.ISBN0-415-10015-1.
^"In depth history of the Church of England". Church of England. Retrieved25 January 2017.The religious settlement that eventually emerged in the reign of Elizabeth gave the Church of England the distinctive identity that it has retained to this day. It resulted in a Church that consciously retained a large amount of continuity with the Church of the Patristic and Medieval periods in terms of its use of the catholic creeds, its pattern of ministry, its buildings and aspects of its liturgy, but which also embodied Protestant insights in its theology and in the overall shape of its liturgical practice. The way that this is often expressed is by saying that the Church of England is both 'catholic and reformed.'
Chappell, William (1966).The Roxburghe Ballads. New York: AMS Press.OCLC488599560.
Clark, David M.;Steed, Michael; Marshall, Sally (1973).Greater Manchester Votes: A Guide to the New Metropolitan Authorities. Stockport: Redrose.ISBN978-0-9502932-0-2.
Clemoes, Peter (2007).Anglo-Saxon England, Volume 12. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-03834-8.
Kenny, Michael; English, Richard; Hayton, Richard (2008).Beyond the Constitution? Englishness in a post-devolved Britain.Institute for Public Policy Research.
Koch, John (2006).Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-85109-440-0.
Lyon, Bryce Dale (1960).A constitutional and legal history of medieval England. University of Michigan.ISBN978-0-393-95132-5.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Massey, Gerald (2007).A Book of the Beginnings, Vol. 1. Cosimo.ISBN978-1-60206-829-2.
McNeil, Robina; Nevell, Michael (2000).A Guide to the Industrial Archaeology of Greater Manchester. Association for Industrial Archaeology.ISBN978-0-9528930-3-5.
Molyneaux, George (2015).The Formation of the English Kingdom in the Tenth Century. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-871791-1.
Norbrook, David (2000).Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627–1660. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-78569-3.
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