As a human endeavor, engineering has existed since ancient times, starting with the six classicsimple machines. Examples of large-scale engineering projects from antiquity include impressive structures like thepyramids, elegant temples such as theParthenon, and water conveyances likehulled watercraft,canals, and theRoman aqueduct. Early machines were powered by humans and animals, then later by wind. Machines of war were invented forsiegecraft. In Europe, thescientific andindustrial revolutions advanced engineering into a scientific profession and resulted in continuing technological improvements. Thesteam engine provided much greater power than animals, leading to mechanical propulsion for ships and railways. Further scientific advances resulted in the application of engineering to electrical, chemical, andaerospace requirements, plus the use of new materials for greater efficiencies.
The wordengineering is derived from theLatiningenium.[3] Engineers typically follow a code of ethics that favors honesty and integrity, while being dedicated to publicsafety andwelfare. Engineering tasks involve findingoptimal solutions based on constraints, with testing andsimulations being used prior to production. When a deployed product fails,forensic engineering is used to determine what went wrong in order to find a fix. Much of thisproduct lifecycle management is now assisted with computersoftware, fromdesign totesting andmanufacturing. At larger scales, this process normally funded by a company, multiple investors, or the government, so a knowledge of economics and business practices is needed.
The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, ormanufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intendedfunction, economics of operation andsafety to life and property.[5][6]
Engineering has existed since ancient times, whenhumans devised inventions such as thewedge,lever,wheel andpulley, etc.[7]
The termengineering is derived from the wordengineer, which itself dates back to the 14th century when anengine'er (literally, one who builds or operates asiege engine) referred to "a constructor of military engines".[8] In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine,i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, acatapult).[9] Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps,e.g., theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the termcivil engineering[6] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline ofmilitary engineering.
Ancient era
The Ancient Romans builtaqueducts to bring a steady supply of clean and fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.[11]
Kush developed theSakia during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy.[24]Hafirs were developed as a type ofreservoir in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation.[25] Kushite ancestors builtspeos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.[26]Bloomeries andblast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.[27][28][29][30] Wooden plank-built seafaring ships were being engineered and built during the bronze age, as evidenced by theUluburun shipwreck, dated from around 1300 BCE.[31]
Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman andHunnic armies employed military machines and inventions such asartillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC,[36] thetrireme, theballista and thecatapult, thetrebuchet by Chinese circa 6th-5th century BCE.[37]
The earliestprogrammable machines were developed in the Muslim world. Amusic sequencer, a programmablemusical instrument, was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automatedflute player invented by theBanu Musa brothers, described in theirBook of Ingenious Devices, in the 9th century.[47][48] In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmableautomata/robots. He described fourautomaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmabledrum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.[49]
Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such asmillwrights,clockmakers, instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.[50]: 32
A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatiseDe re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry.De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years.[50]
Industrial revolution
The application of the steam engine allowed coke to be substituted for charcoal iniron making, lowering the cost of iron, which provided engineers with a new material for building bridges. This bridge was made ofcast iron, which was soon displaced by less brittlewrought iron as a structural material.
The science ofclassical mechanics, sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering.[50] With the rise of engineering as aprofession in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as themechanic arts became incorporated into engineering.
John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design ofbridges, canals,harbors, andlighthouses. He was also a capablemechanical engineer and an eminentphysicist. Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency.[52]: 127 Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels.[50]: 69 Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to theNewcomen steam engine. Smeaton designed the thirdEddystone Lighthouse (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of 'hydraulic lime' (a form ofmortar which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of moderncement, because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention ofPortland cement.
Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of thebarometer and the measurement of atmospheric pressure byEvangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure byOtto von Guericke using theMagdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments byDenis Papin, who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated the use of apiston, which he published in 1707.Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to acoffee percolator.Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked onpumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design thatThomas Savery read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend". It employed both vacuum and pressure.[53] Iron merchantThomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.[52]: 32
The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air forblast furnaces lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime inblast furnaces, which enabled the transition from charcoal tocoke.[54] These innovations lowered the cost of iron, makinghorse railways and iron bridges practical. Thepuddling process, patented byHenry Cort in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron.Hot blast, patented byJames Beaumont Neilson in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.[55] New steel making processes, such as theBessemer process and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century.
The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with a count of 2,000.[63] There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. The firstPhD in engineering (technically,applied science and engineering) awarded in the United States went toJosiah Willard Gibbs atYale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.[64] In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil,mining, mechanical and electrical.[55] There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.[65]
Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century.[6] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.[6] The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.[6]
Originally deriving from the manufacture ofceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering.[66] Modern materials science evolved directly frommetallurgy, which itself evolved from the use of fire. Important elements of modern materials science were products of theSpace Race; the understanding and engineering of the metallicalloys, andsilica andcarbon materials, used in building space vehicles enabling the exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of revolutionary technologies such asrubbers,plastics,semiconductors, andbiomaterials.
Aeronautical engineering deals withaircraft design process design whileaerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by includingspacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work ofSir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.[67] Only adecade after the successful flights by theWright brothers, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used inWorld War I. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combiningtheoretical physics with experiments.
Hoover Dam is regarded as a major accomplishment in civil engineering[68]
Engineering is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although most engineers will usually be trained in a specific discipline, some engineers become multi-disciplined through experience. The traditional disciplines of engineering are civil, mechanical, electrical, and chemical.[69][70][71][72][73][74][75] (Sometimes structural,[69] industrial,[70] or mining and materials[70] is added.)
Below is a list of recognized branches of engineering.[76][75] Note that there are additional sub-disciplines.
Type of engineering
Information
Aerospace engineering
Aerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of aircraft, satellites and rockets.
Agricultural engineering
Agricultural engineering utilizes farm power and machinery, biological material processes, bioenergy, farm structures, and agricultural natural resources.
Biological engineering
Biological engineering studies the application of principles of biology and the tools of engineering to create usable, tangible, economically viable products.
Biomedical engineering
Biomedical engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare applications (e.g., diagnostic or therapeutic purposes).
Chemical engineering
Chemical engineering is the application of chemical, physical, and biological sciences to developing technological solutions from raw materials or chemicals.
Civil engineering
Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings.
Computer engineering
Computer engineering integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software.
Electrical engineering
Electrical engineering focuses on the design, development, and application of systems and equipment that utilize electricity and electromagnetism.
Environmental engineering
Environmental engineering is a specialized field that uses scientific and engineering principles to protect and improve the environment for human health and well-being.
Geological engineering
Geological engineering is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth by applying geological sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines.
Industrial engineering
Industrial engineering focuses on optimizing complex processes, systems, and organizations by improving efficiency, productivity, and quality.
Marine engineering
Marine engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of watercraft and stationary structures like oil platforms and ports.
Materials engineering
Materials engineering is the application of material science and engineering principles to understand the properties of materials.
Mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering comprises the design and analysis of heat and mechanical power for the operation of machines and mechanical systems.
Nuclear engineering
Nuclear engineering is a multidisciplinary field that deals with the design, construction, operation, and safety of systems that utilize nuclear energy and radiation.
Software engineering
Software engineering is a branch of both computer science and engineering focused on designing, developing, testing, and maintaining software applications. It is distinct fromcomputer engineering.
Design of aturbine requires collaboration of engineers from many fields, as the system involves mechanical, electro-magnetic and chemical processes. Theblades,rotor and stator as well as thesteam cycle all need to be carefully designed and optimized.
In theengineering design process, engineers apply mathematics and the physical sciences to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.[80]
If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.[80]
Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost,safety, marketability, productivity, andserviceability. By understanding the constraints, engineers derivespecifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated.[81]
Problem solving
A drawing for asteam locomotive. Engineering is applied todesign, with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.
More than one solution to a design problem usually exists so the differentdesign choices have to be evaluated on their merits before the one judged most suitable is chosen.[83]Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number ofpatents, suggested thatcompromises are at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.[84]
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things:prototypes,scale models,simulations,destructive tests,nondestructive tests, andstress tests. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected but only in so far as the testing has been representative of use in service. For products, such as aircraft, that are used differently by different users failures and unexpected shortcomings (and necessary design changes) can be expected throughout the operational life of the product.[85]
Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and, except those employed in specific areas of thearms industry, will not harm people. Engineers typically include afactor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. This philosophy is embodied byCicero's Creed, now considered the original engineer's code of ethics. His slogan,salus populi suprema lex esto, translates as "the health (or safety, or welfare) of the people shall be the supreme law."[86]
The study of failed products is known asforensic engineering. It attempts to identify the cause of failure to allow a redesign of the product and so prevent a re-occurrence. Careful analysis is needed to establish the cause of failure of a product. The consequences of a failure may vary in severity from the minor cost of a machine breakdown to large loss of life in the case of accidents involving aircraft and large stationary structures like buildings and dams.[87] These larger scaleengineering disasters can arise from shortcuts or errors in the design process, such as miscalculations and miscommunication.[88] They can also happen as a result offatigue failure due tostress, temperature, orcorrosion.[89] Faulty computer software can also play a role.[90]
As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical businessapplication software there are a number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering.[91] Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved usingnumerical methods.[92]
One of the most widely useddesign tools in the profession iscomputer-aided design (CAD) software. It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together withdigital mockup (DMU) andCAE software such asfinite element method analysis oranalytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.[93]
These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use ofproduct data management software.[94]
In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known asproduct lifecycle management (PLM).[99]
Social context
RoboticKismet can produce a range of facial expressions.
The engineering profession engages in a range of activities, from collaboration at the societal level, and smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are obligated to a funding source: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The types of engineering that are less constrained by such a funding source, arepro bono, andopen-design engineering.
Engineering has interconnections with society, culture, and human behavior. Most products and constructions used by modern society, are influenced by engineering. Engineering activities have an impact on the environment,[100] society,[101] economies,[102] and public safety.[103]
The attainment of many of theMillennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.[107]
Overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers, to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. Some charitable organizations use engineering directly for development:
Engineering companies in more developed economies face challenges with regard to the number of engineers being trained, compared with those retiring. This problem is prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low status.[109] There are negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.[110] It is agreed the engineering profession faces an "image crisis".[111] The UK holds themost engineering companies compared to other European countries, together with the United States.[112]
Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.[113]
In Canada, engineers wear theIron Ring as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with their profession.[114]
Relationships with other disciplines
Science
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.
Engineers, scientists and technicians at work on target positioner insideNational Ignition Facility (NIF) target chamber
There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations.[citation needed]
Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology, engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists or more precisely "engineering scientists".[118]
In the bookWhat Engineers Know and How They Know It,[119]Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basicphysics orchemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.
There is a "real and important" difference between engineering and physics as similar to any science field has to do with technology.[120][121] Physics is an exploratory science that seeks knowledge of principles while engineering uses knowledge for practical applications of principles. The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.[122][123][124] For technology, physics is an auxiliary and in a way technology is considered as applied physics.[125] Though physics and engineering are interrelated, it does not mean that a physicist is trained to do an engineer's job. A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.[126] Physicists and engineers engage in different lines of work.[127] But PhD physicists who specialize in sectors ofengineering physics andapplied physics are titled as Technology officer, R&D Engineers and System Engineers.[128]
An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to theNavier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of thefinite element method to calculate the stresses in complex components. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.[129]
As stated by Funget al. in the revision to the classic engineering textFoundations of Solid Mechanics:
Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress innovation and invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what already exists. Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined. In the past engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions. Most often, they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they studiedmathematics,physics,chemistry,biology andmechanics. Often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences were born.[130]
Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability, and constructability or ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.[131]
The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines.Medicine aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even replace functions of thehuman body, if necessary, through the use oftechnology.
Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example,brain implants andpacemakers.[132][133] The fields ofbionics and medical bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems.
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacingbiology with technology. This has led to fields such asartificial intelligence,neural networks,fuzzy logic, androbotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.[134][135]
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.
Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.[136]
The heart for example functions much like a pump,[137] the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,[138] the brain produceselectrical signals etc.[139] These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the field ofbiomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines.
Newly emerging branches of science, such assystems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.[136]
Among famous historical figures,Leonardo da Vinci is a well-knownRenaissance artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.[140][147]
The demand for management-focused engineers (or from the opposite perspective, managers with an understanding of engineering), has resulted in the development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles. During an engineering management course, students will developindustrial engineering skills, knowledge, and expertise, alongside knowledge of business administration, management techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application ofindustrial and organizational psychology principles and methods.
Professional engineers often train ascertified management consultants in the very specialized field ofmanagement consulting applied to engineering practice or the engineering sector. This work often deals with large scale complexbusiness transformation orbusiness process management initiatives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electrical and electronics, power distribution and generation, utilities and transportation systems. This combination of technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry sector knowledge, and change management expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business transformation initiatives. These initiatives are typically sponsored by C-level executives.
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Further reading
Billington, David P. (1996).The Innovators: The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Modern (New ed.). Wiley.ISBN978-0-471-14026-9.
Blockley, David (2012).Engineering: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-957869-6.
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