 | It has been suggested that portions of this article besplit out into articles titledForest Enets language andTundra Enets language. (Discuss)(August 2024) |
| Enets | |
|---|---|
| Онэй базаOnei baza[1] | |
| Native to | Russia |
| Region | Krasnoyarsk Krai, along the lowerYenisei River |
| Ethnicity | 260Enets people (2010 census) |
Native speakers | 69 (2020 census, Russia)[2] 18 (2001, Ukraine) |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | Either:enf – Forest Enetsenh – Tundra Enets |
| Glottolog | enet1250 |
 | |
 Forest Enets is classified as Critically Endangered by theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger | |
Enets (Forest Enets:Онэй база) is aSamoyedic language of Northern Siberia spoken on the LowerYenisei within the boundaries of theTaimyr Municipality District, a subdivision ofKrasnoyarsk Krai,Russian Federation. Enets belongs to the Northern branch of theSamoyedic languages, in turn a branch of theUralic language family.[5]
In 2010 about 40 people claimed to be native Enets speakers, while in 2020, 69 people claimed to speak Enets natively, while 97 people claimed to know Enets in total.[6]
Older generation still speaks their language, but education is in Russian and very little of Enets language is taught and the language is almost unused in everyday life.[7]
There are two distinct dialects,Forest Enets (Bai) [ru] andTundra Enets (Madu or Somatu) [ru], which may be considered separate languages.
Tundra Enets is the smaller of the two Enets dialects. In the winter of 2006/2007, approximately 35 people spoke it (6 inDudinka, 20 inPotapovo [ru] and 10 inTukhard, the youngest of whom was born in 1962 and the oldest in 1945). Many of these speakers aretrilingual, with competence in Forest Enets,Tundra Nenets andRussian, preferring to speak Tundra Nenets.
The two dialects differ both in phonology and in lexicon. Additional variation was found in early Enets records from the 17th to 19th centuries, though all these varieties can be assigned as either Tundra Enets or Forest Enets.[8]
Phonological differences:
Lexical differences:
The following phoneme inventories are combined from all of the different dialects of the Enets languages.Uralicist transcription, often used in literature on Enets, is given below theIPA transcription.
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i i | ɨ i̮ | u u |
| Mid | e,ɛ ḙ,e | ə e̮orə̑ | o,ɔ o̭,o |
| Low | ɑ a | ||
Vowel length is indicated by amacron, e.g.ē[eː].
| Labial | Dental | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | pal. | plain | pal. | plain | pal. | ||||
| Nasal | m m | mʲ ḿ | n n | nʲ ń | ŋ η | ||||
| Stop/ Affricate | voiceless | p p | pʲ ṕ | t t | tʲ ťortʹ | t͡ʃ č | t͡ʃʲ č́orčʹ | k k | ʔ ˀorʼ |
| voiced | b b | bʲ b́orbʹ | d d | dʲ ďordʹ | g g | ||||
| Fricative | plain | ð δ | x χ | h h | |||||
| sibilant | s s | sʲ ś | ʃ š | ʃʲ š́oršʹ | |||||
| Trill | r r | rʲ ŕ | |||||||
| Approximant | w w | l l | lʲ ľorlʹ | j j | |||||
The type of stress in Enets is quantitative. Stressed vowels are pronounced relatively longer than unstressed vowels. Based on the available data, the stress is not (as a rule) used as a feature for distinguishing the meaning. The stress in a word usually falls on the first vowel. The primary stress usually falls on the first syllable and is accompanied by a secondary stress, which falls on the third and the fifth syllable. Sometimes the stress distinguishes the meaning, e.g. in mo·di ('I') vs. modi· ('shoulder'). (The primary stress is marked by ·).[9]
Enets is written using theCyrillic alphabet with several additional letters that are not used in theRussian alphabet.
The written form of the Enets language was created during the 1980s and has been used to produce a number of books. During the 1990s there was a local newspaper with insert in local languages (including Enets language), Советский Таймыр (Soviet Taimyr, modern simpleTaymyr) published and brief Enets broadcasts on local radio, which shut down in 2003,[11] served as supplements for speakers.[12]
In 2019, the Enets alphabet was reformed, and in April 2020, the Enets primer was published in a new version of the alphabet. The alphabet contains the following letters:[13]
| А а | Б б | В в | Г г | Д д | Е е | Ԑ ԑ | Ё ё |
| Ж ж | З з | И и | Й й | К к | Л л | М м | Н н |
| Ӊ ӊ | О о | О̂ о̂ | П п | Р р | С с | Т т | У у |
| Ф ф | Х х | Ц ц | Ч ч | Ш ш | Щ щ | ъ | Ы ы |
| ь | Э э | Ю ю | Я я | ˮ |
Enets nouns vary for number, case, and person-number of the possessor. There is also an intriguing nominal case in which 'destinativity' determines the entity is destined for someone. Possessor markers are also used for discourse related purposes, where they are completely devoid of the literal possessive meaning. Enets postpositions are marked for person-number; many postpositions are formed from a small set of relational nouns and case morphology.[14]
The parts of speech in Enets are: nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, postpositions, conjunctions, interjections and connective particles.[9]
The grammatical number is expressed by means of the opposition of the singular, dual and plural forms. There are three declensions, the main (non-possessive), possessive and desiderative declensions, and seven cases in Enets: the nominative, genitive, accusative, lative, locative, ablative and prolative case. The meaning of those cases is expressed by means of suffixes added to nouns, adjectives, pronouns and substantivized verbs. In their fixed forms they also belong to adverbs and postpositions. The possession is expressed by means of the genitive case or possessive suffixes.[9]
Local orientation is based on the three-member distribution: the suffixes of local cases of nouns, adverbs and postpositions are divided among thelative (to where?),locative (where?) andablative (from where?). Theprolative case (along what? orthrough what?) expresses an additional fourth local characteristic.
The verbal negation is expressed by the combination of the main verb with a preceding auxiliary negative verb. The auxiliary verb is conjugated according to general rules, but the main verb is in a special inconjugated negative form. There are also some verbs of absence - non-possessiveness. Six moods are contrasted in the Enets language: indicative, conjunctive, imperative, optative, quotative and interrogative. There are three tenses:aorist,preterite andfuture.[9]
The category of person with nouns is expressed by means of possessive suffixes, differing in all three numbers of all three persons and used in nouns, pronouns, substantivized verbs, adverbs and postpositions. The category of person with verbs is expressed by means of particular personal suffixes of the verb, differing in all three numbers of all three persons.
There are three conjugations in Enets: subjective, objective and reflexive. These conjugations differ from each other by personal suffixes. Additionally, the objective conjugation uses numerical suffixes, referring to all three numbers of the object. In the case of the reflexive conjugation, the person of the subject and object is the same and a separate suffix indicates reflexivity.[9]
Depending on the final sounds of the word stem, nouns can be divided into two groups:
Either group uses variants of suffixes with a different initial sound (e.g. Locdʲuda-han,tau-kon).
There are seven cases in Enets: the nominative, genitive, accusative, lative, locative, ablative and prolative case. The case suffixes are combined with numeral markers, often in a fairly complex manner.[9]
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | - | -ʔ |
| Genitive | -ʔ | -ʔ |
| Accusative | - | -ʔ |
| Lative | -d/-t | -hɨð/-gɨð/-kɨð |
| Locative | -hVn/-gon/-kon | -hɨn/-gɨn/-kɨn |
| Ablative | -hVð/-gɨð/-kɨð | -hɨt/-gɨt/-kɨt |
| Prolative | -on/-mon | -ɨn/-on |
The dual case forms are produced on the basis of an uninflected dual form with the suffix-hɨʔ/-gɨʔ/-kɨʔ by adding the respective singular case endings of some postpositions (mainlynə-) in local cases.[9]
There are a number of adjectives that have no specific suffixes, e.g.utik 'bad',sojδa 'good',lodo 'low' andpiδe 'high'.
Alongside these, there are various suffixal adjectives, e.g.buse̮-saj ne̮ 'a married woman',bite-δa 'waterless',uδa-šiδa 'handless',mȯga-he 'belonging to the forest',same-raha 'wolf-like',narδe-de̮ 'red',polδe-de̮ 'black'.
The adjective does not agree with its head either in number or case, e.g.agga koja 'big sterlet',agga koja-hone (locative),agga koja-hi̮t (plural ablative). As an exception, we can refer to the use of the adjective instead of an elliptical noun and as a predicate in the nominal conjugation.
To strengthen a possessive connection, sometimes a respective possessive suffix may be added to the head of an attribute, e.g.keδerʔkoba-δa ŋul'ʔ mujuʔ 'the wild reindeer skin is very strong' ("its-skinof-the-wild-reindeer...").
The comparative degree is formed by means of an adjective in the positive degree (in the nominative form) with the word to be compared in the ablative form.[9]
The verbs in Enets can be distributed into two groups in principally the same manner as the noun depending on the final sounds of the word stem. Either group uses the variants of suffixes with different initial sounds.
Seven moods are contrasted: indicative, conjunctive, imperative, optative, quotative and interrogative. There are three tenses: aorist, preterite and future. (These tenses exist practically only in the indicative mood.) The verb has three conjugations: subjective, objective and reflexive. These conjugations differ from each other by personal suffixes. In addition to this the objective conjugation uses numerical suffixes, referring to all three numbers of the object. In the case of reflexive conjugation a separate suffix indicates reflexivity.[9]
The aorist is either unmarked or with the marker-ŋV-/-V-. The temporal meaning of the aorist depends on the aspect of the verb. A prolonged or recurrent action should be understood as taking place in the present, a short-time or single action as having taken place in the past, whereas the influence of the latter is still felt in the present. A distinctly past action is expressed by the preterite with the marker-ś/-š/-d'/-t'/-č, whereas the marker is placed after personal suffixes. The future action is expressed by the future marker-d-/-dV-/-t-/-tV- before personal suffixes.
The objective conjugation uses one type of personal suffixes when the object is in the singular and another type of them with the object in the dual or the plural. In the case of the dual object the dual marker-hu-/-gu-/-ku- precedes the dual personal suffixes of the second type, whereas in the case of the plural object, the rise of the stem vowel can be observed. The marker of the reflexive mood is-i-, which is standing before personal suffixes.[9]
Thesyntax of Enets is typical for the family and the area. The Enets language followsSubject-object-verb,head marking in thenoun phrase, both head anddependent marking within the clause, non-finite verbal forms used for clause combining. Consequently, the finite verb form (thepredicate) is always at the end of a sentence. The negative auxiliary verb immediately precedes the main verb. The object of a sentence always keeps to the word it belongs to.[9]
| Numeral | Cardinal | Ordinal |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | ŋōʔ | orðede̮ |
| 2 | siðe | ne̮kujde̮ |
| 3 | nehuʔ | ne̮hode̮ |
| 4 | teto | tetode̮ |
| 5 | sobboreggo | sobode̮ |
| 6 | mottuʔ | motode̮ |
| 7 | seʔo | se̮ʔode̮ |
| 8 | sidiʔeto | siðetode̮ |
| 9 | nēsā | ne̮satode̮ |
| 10 | biwʔ | biwde̮ |
| 11 | ŋoʔbodade | |
| 12 | side bodade | |
| 13 | nehuʔ bodade | |
| 14 | teto bodade | |
| 20 | sidiuʔ | |
| 21 | sidiuʔ ŋōʔ | |
| 30 | nehibiʔ | |
| 40 | tetujʔ | |
| 50 | sobboreggujʔ | |
| 60 | motujʔ | |
| 70 | seʔujʔ | |
| 80 | siðetujʔ | |
| 90 | nēsauʔ | |
| 100 | juʔ | dʲurde̮ |
Collective numerals are formed combining a separate word namely a forme̮ʃ of the auxiliary verb 'to be' with cardinal numerals, e.g.siðe e̮ʃ 'we two, the two of us'.
Distributive numerals are postpositional constructions of cardinals, combined with the postpositionloð, e.g.siðeʔ loð 'by (in) twos'.
Iteratives are the plural forms of cardinals, e.g.ŋobuʔ 'one time, once'.
Fractional numerals are cardinals that are combined with the word boʔ 'a half', e.g.nehuʔ boʔ 'one-third'.
Temporal numerals are formed from cardinals by means of the suffix-ʔ, e.g.orðede̮ʔ 'the first time'.[9]
Two-member constructions are used to decline personal pronouns. The second member of these constructions is either an independent word stemsi- or a postpositional stemno-. The first member may be absent.[9]
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | modi, mod' 'I' | modiniʔ 'we two' | modinaʔ 'we' |
| Genitive | mod' siń | modińʔ siδińʔ | modinaʔ siδnaʔ |
| Accusative | mod' siʔ | modińʔ siδińʔ | modinaʔ siδnaʔ |
| Lative | mod' noń | modińʔ nońʔ | modinaʔ nonaʔ |
| Locative | mod' none̮ń | modińʔ none̮ńʔ | modinaʔ nonnaʔ |
| Ablative | mod' noδoń | modińʔ noδońʔ | modinaʔ noδnaʔ |
| Prolative | mod' noone̮ń | modińʔ noone̮ńʔ | modinaʔ noone̮naʔ |
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ū 'you' | ūdiʔ 'you two' | ūdaʔ 'you' |
| Genitive | ū sit | ūdiʔ siδtiʔ | ūdaʔ siδtaʔ |
| Accusative | ū sit | ūdiʔ siδδiʔ | ūdaʔ siδδaʔ |
| Lative | ū nod | ūdiʔ nodiʔ | ūdaʔ nodaʔ |
| Locative | ū none̮d | ūdiʔ nondiʔ | ūdaʔ nondaʔ |
| Ablative | ū noδod | ūdiʔ noδdiʔ | ūdaʔ noδdaʔ |
| Prolative | ū noone̮d | ūdiʔ noone̮diʔ | ūdaʔ noone̮daʔ |
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | bu 'he/she' | budiʔ 'they two' | buduʔ 'they' |
| Genitive | bu sita | budiʔ sitiʔ | buduʔ siδtuʔ |
| Accusative | bu sita | budiʔ siδδiʔ | buduʔ siδδuʔ |
| Lative | bu noda | budiʔ nodiʔ | buduʔ noduʔ |
| Locative | bu nonda | budiʔ nondiʔ | buduʔ nonduʔ |
| Ablative | bu noδda | budiʔ noδdiʔ | buduʔ noδduʔ |
| Prolative | bu noone̮da | budiʔ noone̮diʔ | buduʔ noone̮duʔ |
Reflexive pronouns are pairs of words whose first component consists of personal pronouns, the second is a separate word stemker-, combined with their respective possessive suffixes, e.g.mod' keriń 'I myself',ū kerit 'you yourself',bu kerta 'she herself/he himself' ormodiń keriń 'we two ourselves'.
Interrogative pronouns arekurse̮ 'which?',sēa 'who?' (used only for humans) and obu 'what?' (used for animals and lifeless objects).
Negative pronouns are formed from interrogative pronouns by adding the suffix -hȯru, e.g. obuhȯru.[9]
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