In 1396, Sigismund led theCrusade of Nicopolis but was decisively defeated by theOttoman Empire. Afterwards, he founded theOrder of the Dragon to fight the Turks and secured the thrones ofCroatia,Germany andBohemia. Sigismund was one of the driving forces behind theCouncil of Constance (1414–1418) that ended thePapal Schism, but which also led to theHussite Wars that dominated the later period of his life. In 1433, Sigismund was crowned Holy Roman Emperor and ruled until his death in 1437.
Historian Thomas Brady Jr. remarks that Sigismund "possessed a breadth of vision and a sense of grandeur unseen in a German monarch since the thirteenth century". He realized the need to carry out reforms of the empire and the Church at the same time. However external difficulties, self-inflicted mistakes and the extinction of the Luxembourg male line made this vision unfulfilled.[2] Later, theHabsburgs would inherit this mission and imperial reform was carried out successfully under the reigns ofFrederick III and especially his sonMaximilian I, although perhaps at the expense of the reform of the Church, partly because Maximilian was not particularly focused on the matter.[3]
In recent years, scholarly interest (especially fromEast-Central Europe) has grown greatly inthe person and reign of Sigismund—the ruler who had gained and led an imperial association almost reaching the size of the laterHabsburg Empire—as well as cultural developments associated with his era. The setbacks which have been seen as his major failures (like dealing with the Hussite movement) are now generally considered by most scholars to be the results of the lack of financial resources and other heavy constraints, rather than personal failings.[4][5]
KingLouis the Great of Hungary and Poland always had a good and close relationship with Emperor Charles IV, and Sigismund wasbetrothed to Louis' eldest daughter,Mary, in 1374, when he was six years old and Mary but an infant. The marital project aimed to augment the lands held by theHouse of Luxembourg.[10] Upon his father's death in 1378, young Sigismund becameMargrave of Brandenburg and was sent to the Hungarian court, where he soon learned the Hungarian language and way of life, and became entirely devoted to his adopted country.[11] King Louis named him as his heir and appointed him his successor asKing of Hungary.
In 1381, the then 13-year-old Sigismund was sent toKraków by his eldest half-brother and guardianWenceslaus, King of Germany and Bohemia, to learnPolish and to become acquainted with the land and its people.[12] King Wenceslaus also gave himNeumark to facilitate communication between Brandenburg and Poland.
While Mary was accepted as monarch of Hungary, Sigismund vied for thecrown of Poland as well. However, the Poles were unwilling to submit to a German sovereign, nor did they want to be tied to Hungary.[13] The disagreement between Polish landlords ofLesser Poland on one side and landlords ofGreater Poland on the other, regarding the choice of the future monarch of Poland, finally ended in choosing the Lithuanian side. The support of the lords of Greater Poland was however not enough to give Prince Sigismund the Polish crown. Instead, the landlords of Lesser Poland gave it to Mary's younger sisterJadwiga, who marriedJogaila ofLithuania.
On the death of her father in 1382, his betrothed, Mary, became queen of Hungary and Sigismund married her in 1385 in Zólyom (todayZvolen). The next year, he was accepted as Mary's future co-ruler by theTreaty of Győr. However, Mary was captured, together with her mother,Elizabeth of Bosnia, who had acted as regent, in 1387 by the rebelliousHouse of Horvat, BishopPaul Horvat ofMačva, his brotherJohn Horvat and younger brother Ladislav. Sigismund's mother-in-law was strangled, while Mary was liberated.
Campaign of King Sigismund of Hungary against the rebellious House of Horvat in 1387 (Chronica Hungarorum, 1488)
Having secured the support of the nobility, Sigismund was crownedKing of Hungary atSzékesfehérvár on 31 March 1387.[14] Having raised money by pledgingBrandenburg to his cousinJobst, Margrave of Moravia (1388), he was engaged for the next nine years in a ceaseless struggle for the possession of this unstable throne.[11] The central power was finally weakened to such an extent that only Sigismund's alliance with the powerful Czillei-Garai League could ensure his position on the throne.[15] It was not for entirely selfless reasons that one of the leagues of barons helped him to power: Sigismund had to pay for the support of the lords by transferring a sizeable part of the royal properties. (For some years, the baron's council governed the country in the name of theHoly Crown). The restoration of the authority of the central administration took decades of work. The bulk of the nation headed by theHouse of Garai was with him; but in the southern provinces between theSava and theDrava, the Horvathys with the support of KingTvrtko I of Bosnia, Mary's maternal uncle, proclaimed as their kingLadislaus of Naples, son of the murderedCharles II of Hungary. Not until 1395 didNicholas II Garai succeed in suppressing them.[11] Mary died heavily pregnant in 1395.
To ease the pressure from Hungarian nobles, Sigismund tried to employ foreign advisors, which was not popular, and he had to promise not to give land and nominations to anyone other than Hungarian nobles. However, this was not applied toStibor of Stiboricz, who was Sigismund's closest friend and advisor. On a number of occasions, Sigismund was imprisoned by nobles, but with the help of the armies of Garai and Stibor of Stiboricz, he was able to regain power.
King Sigismund of Hungary during thebattle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting by Ferenc Lohr (1896), main hall of the Castle of Vaja.Royal Standard of Hungary under the rule of Sigismund (1387–1437).
In 1396, Sigismund led the combined armies of Christendom against the Turks, who had taken advantage of the temporary helplessness of Hungary to extend their dominion to the banks of theDanube. This crusade, preached byPope Boniface IX, was very popular in Hungary. The nobles flocked in their thousands to the royal standard and were reinforced by volunteers from nearly every part of Europe, the most important contingent being that of theFrench led byJohn the Fearless, son ofPhilip II, Duke of Burgundy. Sigismund set out with 15,000 men and a flotilla of 70 galleys. After capturingVidin, he camped with his Hungarian armies before the fortress ofNicopolis. SultanBayezid I raised thesiege of Constantinople and, at the head of 10,000 men, completely defeated theChristian forces in theBattle of Nicopolis fought between the 25 and 28 September 1396.[11][16] Sigismund returned by sea and through the realm ofZeta, where he ordained the localMontenegrin lordĐurađ II with the islands ofHvar andKorčula for resistance against the Turks; the islands were returned to Sigismund after Đurađ's death in April 1403.
Gold coin of Sigismund of Hungary with his coat of arms (right), and the image of the King SaintLadislaus I of Hungary (left).
The disaster at Nicopolis angered several Hungarian lords, leading to instability in the kingdom. Deprived of his authority in Hungary, Sigismund then turned his attention to securing the succession inGermany andBohemia, and was recognized by his childless half-brotherWenceslaus IV as Vicar-General of the whole empire. However, he was unable to support Wenceslaus when he was deposed in 1400, andRupert of Germany, Elector Palatine, was electedGerman king in his stead.[11]
Sigismund of Luxembourg, official imprint.Reverse of the first double seal (1387–1405) of King Sigismund of Hungary
On his return to Hungary in 1401, Sigismund was imprisoned once and deposed twice. That year, he aided an uprising againstWenceslaus IV, during the course of which theBohemian king was taken prisoner, and Sigismund ruled Bohemia for nineteen months. He released Wenceslaus in 1403. In the meantime, a group of Hungarian noblemen swore loyalty to the last Anjou monarch,Ladislaus of Naples, putting their hands on the relic of Saint Ladislas of Hungary in Nagyvárad (today Oradea). Ladislaus was the son of the murderedCharles II of Hungary, and thus a distant relative of the long-dead KingLouis I of Hungary. Ladislaus captured Zara (todayZadar) in 1403, but soon stopped any military advance. This struggle in turn led to a war with theRepublic of Venice, as Ladislaus had soldthe Dalmatian cities to the Venetians for 100,000 ducats[11] before leaving for his own land. In the following years, Sigismund acted indirectly to thwart Ladislaus' attempts to conquer central Italy, by allying with the Italian cities resisting him and by applying diplomatic pressure on him.[citation needed]
Due to his frequent absences attending to business in the other countries over which he ruled, he was obliged to consult Diets in Hungary with more frequency than his predecessors and institute the office of Palatine as chief administrator while he was away.[citation needed] In 1404, Sigismund introduced thePlacetum Regium. According to this decree,Papal bulls could not be pronounced in Hungary without the consent of the king. During his long reign, the royalBuda Castle became probably the largest Gothic palace of theLate Middle Ages.[citation needed]
The campaign of Hungarians against Bosnia during the reign of King Sigismund of Hungary (Chronica Hungarorum, 1488)Drinking horn of Sigismund of Luxembourg, before 1408
Sigismund managed to establish control inSlavonia. He did not hesitate to use violent methods (seeBloody Sabor of Križevci), but from the RiverSava to the south his control was weak. Sigismund personally led an army of almost 50,000 "crusaders" against theBosnians, culminating with theBattle of Dobor in 1408, a massacre of about 200 members of various Bosniannoble families. However, although campaign militarily looked like a success, it ultimately failed politically and Hungarians retreated, while theBosnian crown slowly but surely slipped away out of the reach for Sigismund and Hungarians.[17]
Threatened by Ottoman expansion, King Sigismund managed to strengthen the security of southern Hungarian borders by entering into a defensive alliance with DespotStefan Lazarević ofSerbia. In 1403, Hungarian possessions in northwestern regions of Serbia (the city ofBelgrade and theBanate of Macsó), were given to Despot Stefan, who pledged his allegiance to King Sigismund, remaining the king's loyalvassal until death in 1427. Stefan's successorGeorge Branković of Serbia also pledged his allegiance to Sigismund, returning Belgrade to the king. By maintaining close relations with Serbian rulers, Sigismund succeeded in securing the southern borders of his realm.[18][19]
Sigismund founded his personal order of knights, theOrder of the Dragon, after the victory at Dobor.[20][21] The main goal of the order was fighting theOttoman Empire. Members of the order were mostly his political allies and supporters. The main members of the order were Sigismund's close alliesNicholas II Garay,Hermann II of Celje,Stibor of Stiboricz, andPippo Spano. The most important European monarchs became members of the order. He encouraged international trade by abolishing internal duties, regulating tariffs on foreign goods and standardizing weights and measures throughout the country.
After the death of KingRupert of Germany in 1410, Sigismund—ignoring the claims of his half-brother Wenceslaus—was elected as successor by three of theelectors on 20 September 1410, but he was opposed by his cousinJobst of Moravia, who waselected by four electors in a different election on 1 October. Jobst's death on 18 January 1411 removed this conflict and Sigismund wasagain elected king on 21 July 1411. Hiscoronation was deferred until 8 November 1414, when it took place atAachen.[11]
On a number of occasions, and in 1410 in particular, Sigismund allied himself with theTeutonic Knights againstWładysław II of Poland. In return for 300,000 ducats he would attackPoland from the south after the truce on St. John's Day, 24 June expired. Sigismund ordered his most loyal friendStibor of Stiboricz to set up the attack on Poland. Stibor of Stiboricz was of Polish origin and from the main line of the powerfulClan of Ostoja that had also been against choosing Jagiello as King of Poland. With the support of Sigismund, Stibor became one of the most influential men in late medieval Europe, holding titles asDuke ofTransylvania and owning about 25% of modern-daySlovakia, including 31 castles of which 15 were situated around the 406 km longVáh river with surrounding land that was given to him by Sigismund. In the diplomatic struggle to prevent war between Poland-Lithuania, which was supported by the Muscovites, and the Teutonic Knights, Sigismund used Stibor's fine diplomacy to gain financially. The Polish side appointed several negotiators and most of them were also from theClan of Ostoja, distant relations of the Stibors. However, those "family meetings" could not prevent the war and an alliance of twenty-two western states formed an army against Poland in theBattle of Grunwald in July 1410. Stibor attacked thenNowy Sącz and burned it to the ground, but after that, he returned with his army back to theBeckov Castle. After the Polish-Lithuanian victory in theBattle of Grunwald, the Teutonic Knights had to pay a huge sum of silver to Poland as reparation and again, through the diplomacy of his friend Stibor, Sigismund was able to borrow all this silver from King Władysław II of Poland on good conditions. In the light of facts about the diplomatic work of Stibor and the Clan of Ostoja that was following the politics of King Sigismund, one can question whether Sigismund actually joined the anti-Polish alliance.[22]
In 1412, a Knights Tournament was held inBuda, Hungary, this was also a conference between Hungarian King Sigismund, Polish KingWladyslaw II and Bosnian KingTvrtko II. 2000 knights were present from all over Europe, even England. There were very many princes, lords, knights and servants at the court of Buda in Hungary. Three kings and three other monarchs, a Serbiandespot, 13 herzogs and/or dukes, 21 counts, 2000 knights, 1 cardinal, 1 legate, 3 archbishops, 11 other bishops, 86 players and trumpeters, 17 messengers, and 40,000 horses. There were people from 17 countries and languages. A presumably contemporary list of the participants of the meeting has also survived. Besides the host, Sigismund, and his main guest, Władysław II, this text mentions Władysław's cousinVytautas,Grand Duke of Lithuania, and the king of Bosnia, usually identified as Tvrtko II. Some argue convincingly that it was not Tvrtko II butStjepan Ostoja who visited Buda at that time. Besides the king,Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić,Sandalj Hranić Kosača andPavle Radinović also came from Bosnia, and fromSerbia, the DespotStefan Lazarević, bringing two thousand horses. From Austria, dukesErnest (the Iron) andAlbert II, later successor of Sigismund, also took part in the Buda meeting. AlsoHeinrich von Plauen. theGrand Master of theTeutonic Order,Stibor of Stiboricz,Nikola II Gorjanski,Hermann II, Count of Celje and his sonFrederick II, count ofKrbava—Karlo Kurjaković, Ivan Morović-ban ofMachva. Długosz reports the arrival in Buda of the envoys of theJalal al-Din, khan of theGolden Horde and son ofTokhtamysh, who wanted to meet Władysław II of Poland. Jalal al-Din was an ally of the Polish and Lithuanian rulers in their fight against theTeutonic Order, and according to some reconstructions of the events, Sigismund also wanted to rely on the Tatars against theOttoman threat. A narrative source fromLübeck also mentions the proceedings in Buda in 1412. Detmar's Lübeckische Chronik continued from 1400 to 1413. The continuation also gives a detailed description of the participants at the Buda meeting. The royal meeting was accompanied by festivities and various entertainments. At the tournament, a knight fromSilesia named Nemsche and a page from Austria won the joust. A Polish priest and chroniclerJan Długosz says in hisAnnales seu cronici incliti regni Poloniae that in the tournament there were also knights from Bulgaria, probably from the court of princeFruzhin, Sigismund'svasal who also was at the conference.
Sigismund and Barbara of Celje at the Council of Constance.
From 1412 to 1423, Sigismund campaigned against theRepublic of Venice in Italy. The king took advantage of the difficulties ofAntipope John XXIII to obtain a promise that acouncil should be called in Constance in 1414 to settle theWestern Schism. He took a leading part in the deliberations of this assembly, and during the sittings travelled toFrance,England, andBurgundy in a vain attempt to secure the abdication of the three rival popes. The council ended in 1418, having resolved the Schism and—of great consequence to Sigismund's future career—having theCzech religious reformer,Jan Hus,burned at the stake forheresy in July 1415. The complicity of Sigismund in the death of Hus is a matter of controversy. He had granted Hus asafe conduct and protested against his imprisonment,[11] and Hus was burned during Sigismund's absence.
When at one point during the council a cardinal corrected Sigismund'sLatin, Sigismund repliedEgo sum rex Romanus et super grammaticam ("I am king of the Romans and above grammar").[23]Thomas Carlyle nicknamed Sigismund "Super Grammaticam".[24][25]
His main acts during these years were an alliance with England against France, and a failed attempt, owing to the hostility of the princes, to secure peace in Germany by a league of the towns.[11] Also, Sigismund awarded Brandenburg (which he had recovered after Jobst's death) toFrederick of Hohenzollern, burgrave ofNuremberg, in 1415. This step made theHouse of Hohenzollern one of the most important in Germany.
Sigismund began to shift his alliance from France to England after the French defeat at theBattle of Agincourt, which he was also controversially absent from due to hosting a pseudo-council inPerpignan withAntipope Benedict XIII and KingFerdinand I of Aragon. The signing of theTreaty of Canterbury on 15 August 1416 culminated diplomatic efforts betweenHenry V of England and Sigismund and resulted in a defensive and offensive alliance against France. This, in turn, led the way to the resolution of thepapal schism.[26] The close relationship that developed between Henry V and Sigismund resulted in him being inducted into theOrder of the Garter.[27]
The wars of King Sigismund against the Hussites (Chronica Hungarorum, 1488)Portrait of Emperor Sigismund, painted byAlbrecht Dürer after the emperor's death
In 1419, the death ofWenceslaus IV left Sigismund titularKing of Bohemia, but he had to wait for seventeen years before theCzechEstates would acknowledge him. Although the two dignities of king of the Romans and king of Bohemia added considerably to his importance, and indeed made him the nominal temporal head ofChristendom, they conferred no increase of power and financially embarrassed him. It was only asKing of Hungary that he had succeeded in establishing his authority and in doing anything for the order and good government of the land. Entrusting the government of Bohemia toSofia of Bavaria, the widow of Wenceslaus, he hastened into Hungary.[11]
The Bohemians, who distrusted him as the betrayer ofHus, were soon in arms; and the flame was fanned when Sigismund declared his intention of prosecuting the war against heretics. Three campaigns against theHussites ended in disaster although the army of his most loyal allyStibor of Stiboricz and later his sonStibor of Beckov could hold the Hussite side away from the borders of the kingdom. The Turks took advantage of the internal disorder and soon began attacking Hungary again at this time.
At the 1422 Diet of Nuremberg, Sigismund and German territorial princes collaborated to organize two armies against the Hussite rebels. The first army was sent to relieveKarlštejn, which was under a Hussite siege; the second army was ordered to destroy the Hussite field army. ButJan Žižka defeated the Imperial force at theBattle of Kutná Hora and then at theBattle of Německý Brod. These two unexpected defeats at the hands of the Hussites "ended the first Imperial and Catholic attempt to crush the Bohemian 'heretic rebellion'."[28]
The alliance against the Hussites continued to develop though, joined by Upper German princes and cities, even from "the regions furthest from Bohemia". In January 1424, the associative activity of the German electors led to the Union ('einunge') of Bingen, "within which the Rhenish princes were joined by the elector of Saxony and Sigismund's loyal partner Margrave Frederick of Brandenburg, and mutual assistance, adjudication, and cooperation in the face of the Hussite threat were stipulated."[29]
Sigismund's rule in Germany and in the empire in general was hampered by his complete lack ofHausmacht (domestic power) within theKingdom of Germany.[5][30]
His rule relied on key allies and the culture of associative political mechanisms in Germany. Duncan Hardy remarks that "both the local and the trans-regional dimensions of the political activity displayed by the sources from throughout Sigismund's reign demonstrate that power at every level in the empire was exercised and mediated through the customary institutions and mechanisms of associative political culture. If Sigismund enjoyed considerable successes at certain junctures, it was not in spite of or independently from these institutions and mechanisms, but precisely because he devoted considerable energy to harnessing associative interactions and building strategic relationships with leading actors within elite networks. Even during his prolonged absences from the empire's core lands, Sigismund was able to make use of these partnerships, and could reasonably expect that the associative activity of princes, nobles, and towns would yield results—as indeed they did, in the form of large-scale collective activity against DukeFrederick IV of Austria—Tyrol in the 1410 and the Hussites in the 1420. Not all of Sigismund's projects came to fruition, and he could not always control the longer-term outcomes of his policies, but the notion that there were phases of an 'empire without a king' during his reign clearly does not stand up to the abundant evidence of his interactions with regional clients and associations. At the same time, the somewhat adulatory view that has developed in recent years of Sigismund as a masterly politician can be tempered by the evidence that it was often felicitous alliances as much as personal skill which made his successes possible."[31]
The alliance between Sigismund and his two key allies in Germany, namelyFrederick I, Elector of Brandenburg andAlbert of Austria (who became his son-in-law and heir through the marriage with Sigismund's only daughterElizabeth of Luxembourg), started the rise of the Hohenzollerns and reboosted theHabsburgs (who returned to the German throne and also inherited the connection with Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia from Sigismund).[32][33]
In 1428, Sigismund led another campaign against the Turks, but again with few results. In 1431, he went toMilan where on 25 November he received theIron Crown asKing of Italy; after which he remained for some time atSiena, negotiating for hiscoronation as emperor and for the recognition of the Council of Basel byPope Eugenius IV. He was crowned emperor inRome on 31 May 1433, and after obtaining his demands from the pope returned to Bohemia, where he was recognized as king in 1436, though his power was little more than nominal.[11] Shortly after he was crowned, Pope Eugenius began attempts to create a new anti-Ottoman alliance.[34] This was sparked[citation needed] by anAlbanian revolt against the Ottomans, which had begun in 1432. In 1435, Sigismund sentFruzhin, a Bulgarian nobleman, to negotiate an alliance with the Albanians. He also sent Daud, a pretender to the Ottoman throne, in early 1436.[35] However, following the defeat of the rebels in 1436, plans for an anti-Ottoman alliance ended.[35] Sigismund died on 9 December 1437 atZnojmo (German:Znaim),Moravia (nowCzech Republic), and as ordered in life, he was buried atNagyvárad,Hungary (todayOradea,Romania), next to the tomb of the King SaintLadislaus I of Hungary, who was the ideal of the perfect monarch, warrior and Christian for that time and was deeply venerated by Sigismund.[36] By his second wife,Barbara of Celje, he left an only daughter,Elisabeth of Luxembourg, who was married toAlbert V, duke of Austria (later German king as Albert II) whom Sigismund named as his successor. As he left no sons, his line of theHouse of Luxembourg became extinct on his death.[11]
Sigismund married twice but had little luck in securing the succession to his crowns. Each of his two marriages resulted in the birth of one child. His firstborn child, probably a son, was born prematurely as a result of a horse riding accident suffered by QueenMary of Hungary when she was well advanced in pregnancy. Mother and child both died shortly after the birth in the hills ofBuda on 17 May 1395. This caused a deep succession crisis because Sigismund ruled overHungary by right of his wife, and although he managed to keep his power, the crisis lasted until his second marriage toBarbara of Celje. Barbara's only child,born in the purple on 7 October 1409, probably in the castle ofVisegrád, wasElisabeth of Luxembourg,[37] the futurequeen consort of Hungary, Germany, and Bohemia. Queen Barbara was unable to give birth to any further issue.Elizabeth of Luxembourg was thus the only surviving legitimate offspring of Sigismund.
Sigismund was known to speak fluentHungarian, wore Hungarian-style royal clothes, and even grew his beard in the Hungarian fashion.[38]
Emperor Sigismund, in terms of the quality of his face and the greatness of his stature, was a fairly great man, the world's chief creator blessed him with a beautiful face, curly, bluish hair, and a gentle look. He wore a long beard out of his attraction to the Hungarians because they also wore long beards once upon a time.
He also spent huge amounts of money during his reign to rebuild the Gothic castles ofBuda andVisegrád in the Kingdom of Hungary, ordering the transportation of materials from Austria and Bohemia.[40]
His many affairs with women led to the birth of severallegends, as the one that existed decades later during the reign of the KingMatthias Corvinus of Hungary. According to this,John Hunyadi was Sigismund's illegitimate son. Sigismund gave a ring to the boy's mother when he was born, but one day in the forest a raven stole it from her, and the ring was only recovered after the bird was hunted down. It is said that this incident inspired the coat of arms of theHunyadis, and later also appeared in the coat of arms of Matthias "Corvinus".[41]
Sigismund adopted the Hungarian reverence for SaintLadislaus I of Hungary, who was considered to be an ideal Christian knight at that time. He went on pilgrimage several times to his tomb in Nagyvárad. Before Sigismund died, inZnaim,Moravia, he ordered to be buried next to the king saint.[42]
The bloodline of Sigismund connects through three princesses to the royal HungarianÁrpád dynasty.
TheReformatio Sigismundi appeared in connection with efforts toreform theHoly Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Sigismund (1410–1437). It was presented in 1439 at theCouncil of Basel, published by an anonymous author, and referred to the injustice of the German rulers. It included avision of Sigismund's about the appearance of a priest-king, Frederick, as well as plans for a widereform of the monarchy and emperorship and the German empire.
Historiography and cultural depictions of Sigismund
Title of Sigismund in the Hungarian first decree of 1405:"Sigismund, by the Grace of God, King of Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania and Bulgaria, Margrave of Brandenburg, Chief Chamberlain of the Holy Roman Empire, Heir of Bohemia and Luxemburg."[43]
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