Severnaya Zemlya was first discovered in 1913 and first charted in 1930–1932, making it the last sizeablearchipelago onEarth to be discovered and mapped.[1] Administratively, the islands form part of Russia'sKrasnoyarsk Krai. InSoviet times there were a number of research stations in different locations, but currently there are no human inhabitants in Severnaya Zemlya, except for the Prima Polar Station[2] nearCape Baranov.[3]
The largestglacier in the Russian Federation, theAcademy of Sciences Glacier, is located in Severnaya Zemlya. Until recently, ice joined the islands toEurasia, even at its smallest extent during the late summer melt season, blocking theNortheast Passage between the Atlantic and the Pacific. By the late summer of 2012, however, due toArctic sea ice decline the permanent ice had reached a record low extent and open water appeared to the south of the archipelago.[4]
Although Severnaya Zemlya lies not far off the northern coast of Siberia, cartographers did not formally record it until the 20th century. Earlier explorers deemed that there was a land mass in the general area - note for example the report byMatvei Gedenschtrom andYakov Sannikov made in 1810 at the time of their exploration of theNew Siberian Islands.
Later in the 19th century,Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld during theVega expedition sailed very close to this land in 1878 but did not notice it. In 1882, the DanishArctic explorer and naval officerAndreas Peter Hovgaard, leader of the Arctic surveyDijmphna expedition, set himself the goal of discovering land north ofCape Chelyuskin and exploring the unknown northeastern limits of theKara Sea.[5] However, Hovgaard was prevented from accomplishing his objectives after having become trapped in thick ice, and his expedition was unable to reach even the shores of theTaymyr Peninsula.[6]
Map of the Kara Sea drift of steamshipDijmphna in 1882–83. This venture would have discovered the land now known as Severnaya Zemlya had it been successful.
On 3 September 1913 (22 August 1913 in theJulian calendar used by Russia at the time), members of Vilkitsky's expedition landed on what is now known asCape Berg on present-dayOctober Revolution Island.[9] They raised the Russian flag on the shore and named the new territoryTayvay Land (Russian:Земля Тайвай,Zemlya Tayvay), after the first syllable of each of their icebreakers' names. During the days that followed, Vilkitsky's expedition charted parts of the Laptev Sea coast of what they believed to be a single island.[10] Barely six months later, in early 1914, by order of the Secretary of the Imperial Navy, the new discovery was renamedEmperor Nicholas II Land (Russian:Земля Императора Николая II,Zemlya Imperatora Nikolaya II), after the rulingEmperor Nicholas II of Russia.[11]
Partly surveyedEmperor Nicholas II Land in a 1915 map of the Russian Empire. At the time it was believed that the archipelago formed a single landmass.
Russian 2013 stamp set featuring Boris Vilkitsky, his ships and the landscape of the area - dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the discovery of Severnaya Zemlya.
In 1926, thePresidium of theCentral Executive Committee of the USSR renamed the still not fully-explored landSevernaya Zemlya.[12] In May 1928,Umberto Nobile and his crew in theAirshipItalia attempted to overfly the islands, but adverse weather conditions forced them to turn southward when only an hour or two from viewing the archipelago's coastline.[13]
In the spring of 1931,Georgy Ushakov, accompanied by the geologistNikolay Urvantsev, the veteran surveyorSergei Zhuravlev, and the radio-operatorVasily Khodov, thoroughly surveyed Severnaya Zemlya during a two-year expedition to the archipelago.[14] Ushakov and his team established a small base at Golomyanny – the western end ofSredniy Island, off October Revolution Island's western coast. From there they made multiple surveying-trips into the interior and to the coastlines of the larger islands.[15] The first detailed map drawn by the expedition's cartographers showed Severnaya Zemlya divided into four main islands.[1] Geographic features of the territory were named aftercommunist organisations, events, and personalities. With reference to Severnaya Zemlya Ushakov wrote:
I have seen God-forsakenChukotka Peninsula, blizzard-riddenWrangel Island, twice visited fog-enshroudedNovaya Zemlya, and I have seenFranz Josef Land with its enamel sky and proud cliffs garbed in blue, hardened glacial streams, but nowhere did I witness such grimness or such depressing, lifeless relief...[16]
TheGraf Zeppelin flew over the area during its polar flight of July 1931 and recorded some cartographic and meteorological data;Hugo Eckener tried to take pictures of the yet unsurveyed western coast, but it was obscured by fog and clouds.[17]
During the period of theCold War (1940s to 1980s), the islands of Severnaya Zemlya continued to be studied by a team of geologists from NIIGA (the Scientific Research Institute of Arctic Geology) inSt. Petersburg, (then known as Leningrad). Between 1948 and 1954 a comprehensive geological map was compiled under B. Kh. Egiazarov.[22] Also more accurate maps were drawn by means of cartographic data gathered fromaerial-photography surveys.[23]
Administratively, Severnaya Zemlya formed part of theTaymyr Autonomous Okrug until thisokrug was merged intoKrasnoyarsk Krai on 1 January 2007. As of 2021[update] it belongs to theTaymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District of Krasnoyarsk Krai. There has been a request at the Krasnoyarsk Krai Legislative Assembly to reinstate the former name of Severnaya Zemlya as "Emperor Nicholas II Land" (Russian:Земля Николая II). This request, however, has been rejected by the local government for the time being.[12]
View of the remains of abandoned Izluchina Russian polar station at the northern end ofKomsomolets Island
Severnaya Zemlya comprises four major islands – October Revolution, Bolshevik, Komsomolets, and Pioneer – and around 70 smaller islands, covering a total area of about 37,000 km2 (14,300 sq mi). It is separated from theTaymyr Peninsula by theVilkitsky Strait.[22] Komsomolets is separated fromCanada's northernmost point,Cape Columbia, by under2000 km.
Four of the main islands are largely glaciated, October Revolution, Komsomolets, and Pioneer, as well as the smallerSchmidt Island at the northwestern limit. Theglacierised area on Bolshevik, the southernmost main island of the group, covers about a quarter of its land's surface. The southmost point of Severnaya Zemlya isCape Neupokoyev at the SW end of Bolshevik Island.[24] The highest point of the archipelago is 965 m (3,166 ft) Mount Karpinsky, the summit of the Karpinsky Glacier, anice dome on October Revolution Island. TheRed Army Strait separates Komsomolets Island from October Revolution Island and the broaderShokalsky Strait Bolshevik Island from October Revolution Island. Both straits connect the Kara Sea in the west with the Laptev Sea in the east.[25]
This archipelago encloses the northern limits of theKara Sea on its western shores, together withNovaya Zemlya, located roughly 1,000 km (620 mi) to the southwest. The large riversOb andYenisei, among others, flow from the south into this marginal sea area of the Arctic Ocean, with their abundant waters contributing to a climate with relatively high precipitation despite the prevalent extreme cold temperatures of the high latitude. TheLaptev Sea, where the mightyLena River steadily expands its large delta, lies to the east of Severnaya Zemlya. Thetopographic relief of the archipelago is quite smooth, withNeoproterozoic andPalaeozoic sedimentary successions dominating itsbedrock geology.[26]
Glaciers in the archipelago have a characteristicdome shape with a continuously decreasing surface towards their edges. Ice cliffs are found only at the base. The places where the glaciers reach the sea contribute to the formation of icebergs. The most active glacier fronts are the eastern side of the Academy of Sciences Glacier atKrenkel Bay as well as its southern side. Another quite active glacier is theRusanov Glacier on the island of October Revolution with itsterminus atMatusevich Fjord.[23]
October Revolution, with sevenglaciers, is the island with most individual glaciers in Severnaya Zemlya. Next are the islands of Bolshevik with six, Komsomolets with four, Pioneer with two and Schmidt Island with one. The largest glacier is theAcademy of Sciences Glacier in Komsomolets, which is also the largest ice cap of Russia —a 5,575 km2 (2,153 sq mi) and 819 m (2,687 ft) thick ice dome reaching 749 m (2,457 ft)above sea level covering about two-thirds of the surface of the island.
October Revolution Island (Russian:Остров Октябрьской Революции,Ostrov Oktyabrskoy Revolyutsii) is the largest island of the Severnaya Zemlya group in the RussianArctic.
The area of this island has been estimated at 14,170 km2 (5,470 sq mi) making it the 59th largest island in the world.[27] It rises to a height of 965 m (3,166 ft) onMount Karpinsky. Half the island is covered withglaciers reaching down into the sea. In the sections free from ice, the vegetation isdesert ortundra. The island was first explored and named by the expedition ofG.A. Ushakov andNikolay N. Urvantsev in 1930–32.[28]
October Revolution Island houses five domed ice caps; clockwise from north, they are named:Rusanov,Karpinsky,University,Vavilov andAlbanov.[29] TheVavilov Meteorological Station was operated from 1974 to 1988 on the northern part of the Vavilov Ice Cap.[30] Other minor ice caps on the island include the Mal'yutka Glacier. The Podemnaya River and the Bolshaya River drain to the northwest between the Vavilov andAlbanov glaciers, and the Bedovaya and Obryvistaya Rivers drain to the north between Albanov andRusanov.[31] The largest lake of the island and the entire archipelago,Fiordovoye, is located on the southwestern edge of the Karpinsky glacier.[32] To the east and south of the island are the largeMatusevich Fjord and the smallerMarat Fjord. They, together with the lake, encircle the Karpinsky ice cap.Cape October is located in the northern part of the island facing the Red Army Strait.[33]
Ostrov Vysokiy is an islet located in a small bay on October Revolution Island's southwest shores.
Bolshevik Island (Russian:о́стров Большеви́к,pronounced[ˈostrəvbəlʲʂɨˈvʲik]) is the southernmost and second largest island in the group, located across the Shokalsky Strait from October Revolution Island. The area of this island has been estimated at 11,312 km2 (4,370 sq mi).
Bolshevik Island is mountainous, reaching a height of 935 m (3,068 ft). It houses anArctic base namedPrima[34] nearCape Baranov.[35]
Komsomolets Island (Russian:остров Комсомолец) is the northernmost island of the Severnaya Zemlya group in the RussianArctic, and the third largest island in the group. It is the82nd largest island on earth.
The northernmost point of the island is called theArctic Cape. This is the launching point for many Arctic expeditions.
The area of this island has been estimated at 9,006 km2 (3,477 sq mi). It rises to a height of 780 m (2,559 ft). Some 65% of the island is covered with glaciers. Komsomolets Island is home to the largest ice cap in Russia, theAcademy of Sciences Ice Cap,[37] which covers most of the island betweenKrenkel Bay in the east andZhuravlev Bay in the west.[36][38]
The soil of the island is mostly composed of looseloam andsand, a tundra desert scattered with mosses and lichens.[39] The island was first explored and named by the expedition ofGeorgy Ushakov andNikolay Urvantsev in 1930–32. In keeping with their scheme of naming the islands after events and movements of theRussian Revolution, this island was named in honour of the members of theKomsomol, the "Communist Union of Youth".
Off the northwestern shores of Komsomolets Island lies a group of islets known asOstrova Dem'yana Bednogo.
Pioneer Island, Ostrov Pioner in Russian. It is the westernmost of the large islands of the Severnaya Zemlya group and is separated from Komsomolets Island by theYuny Strait. Pioneer island measures 1,527 km2 (590 sq mi) in area.
Off Pioneer Island's southwestern end liesKrupskoy Island. This is a fairly large island, over 20 km (12 mi) in length and about 11 km (6.8 mi) in width. The sound that separates it from Pioneer is only 0.5 km (0.31 mi) in width.
Schmidt Island, measuring 467 km2 (180 sq mi), is located at the far northwestern end of the archipelago. This island is quite detached from the whole Severnaya Zemlya group. It is also its northernmost island and before modern climate warming it was fully in the region ofpermanent sea ice.
This island is almost entirely covered by theSchmidt Ice Cap. Owing to its exposed position, the climate in the Schmidt Island's area is much colder than in the rest of the archipelago.[30]
Schmidt Island was named after the Soviet scientistOtto Schmidt.
Close to the main archipelago of Severnaya Zemlya there are a number of smaller islands and archipelagos. There are also many small coastal islands and islets in different locations, such asKrupskoy to the west of Pioneer andNaydenysh (Russian:Найдёныш) nearCape Anuchin in October Revolution Island.[41] Among the other minor islands the following deserve mention:
The Sedov Archipelago, formerly known asSergey Kamenev Islands,[42] is located just west of October Revolution Island on the Kara Sea side. The main islands of this archipelago areSredny (the longest island),Domashnyy,Strela, andFigurnyy. Close to the shore of October Revolution Island liesObmannyy Island and 32 km (20 mi) further offshore southwards liesDlinnyy Island. These other coastal islands are sometimes included as part of the Sedov Group.
Golomyanniy Meteorological Station, located on the western tip of Sredniy Island at79°33′N90°38′E / 79.550°N 90.633°E /79.550; 90.633,[43] was the wintering site and base of the 1931–32 expedition[15] and has been taking continuous measurements since 1954.[30]
An official request has been forwarded to rename Domashnyy Island asSvyatoy Anastasii (остров Святой Анастасии), St. Anastasia Island.[12]
Located just south of October Revolution Island in the Kara Sea. The Krasnoflotskiye Islands (Russian:Краснофлотские) extend from north to south in an almost straight line78°36′N98°40′E / 78.600°N 98.667°E /78.600; 98.667. The main islands areSverdlova – very close toCape Sverdlov on the coast,Bolshoy – not much larger than the others despite its name,Sredniy andGreben far offshore. All islands are devoid of vegetation.
Two small islets namedOpasnye, which are also part of this group, lie 35 km (19 nmi; 22 mi) to the southwest of Greben Island.
The Krasnoflotskiye Islands were first sighted and mapped in August 1932 by the expedition of theAll-Union Arctic Institute on theicebreakerRusanov. There is an Arctic Station in the Krasnoflotskiye Islands (AS-042), which has been operating since 1953.[44]
Maly Taymyr was discovered byBoris Vilkitsky during theArctic Ocean Hydrographic Expedition in 1913 and was named "Tsarevich Alexei Island" (Russian:Остров Цесаревича Алексея),[7] after the son of ZarNicholas II of Russia. Following the 1917October Revolution the island was renamed "Maly Taymyr". In 2005 an official request was forwarded to the local government in Krasnoyarsk Krai in order to reinstate its former name to the island asAlexei Island.
Starokadomsky Island is close by to Maly Taymyr, located off its northwestern side and separated from it by a narrow six km-wide (3.7 mi) sound. This island was named after Dr.Leonid Starokadomsky, one of the leaders of the 1913 Arctic Ocean Hydrographic Expedition.
Lishniy Island (Russian:Лишний) is a coastal island located on the eastern side of the mouth ofAkhmatov Fjord, southeast ofCape Unslicht, off Bolshevik Island's northern end at79°11′N103°24′E / 79.183°N 103.400°E /79.183; 103.400. The island has an irregular shape and is 6 km (4 mi) long with a maximum width of 3.5 km (2.2 mi).
A deep round lake with a diameter of 700 m (2,300 ft) is located in the western part of the island and is connected to the sea by a small channel. Almost all the island is rocky, except for the northwestern part. The highest point of Lishniy Island is 27 m (89 ft)[45]
South of Lishniy liesYuzhnyy, a smaller island, and two islets.[46] Lishniy off Severnaya Zemlya should not be confused withLishny Island offToll Bay, south of theFirnley Islands.
Severnaya Zemlya is consistently cold and quite dry (KöppenET bordering onEF), with a mean annual temperature of −14.8 °C (5.4 °F), mean annual precipitation of about 420 mm (16.5 in), and generally overcast skies. Monthly average temperature ranges from −28 °C (−18.4 °F) in February to 1 °C (33.8 °F) in July. The archipelago sees large temperature fluctuations during winter months, as low-pressure cyclonic activity originating in the North Atlantic make their way across the Arctic, bringing precipitation and higher temperatures. These cyclones are most common in September and October, which see 30% of annual precipitation. Snowfall in summer is common as temperatures hover around 0 °C (32 °F), although higher temperatures occur when warm air masses move north from Siberia.[30]
Climate data for Golomyanniy Meteorological Station
According to a survey of prior observations by De Korte, Volkov, and Gavrilo, thirty-two bird species have been observed on Severnaya Zemlya, 17 of which are known to breed on the islands. Eight species are widespread across the archipelago: five of which are colonial seabirds:little auk (Alle alle),black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla),black guillemot (Cepphus grylle),ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea), andglaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus); and three species of tundra bird: thesnow bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis),purple sandpiper (Calidris maritima), andbrent goose (Branta bernicla).[51]
The most common mammal on Severnaya Zemlya is thecollared lemming (Dicrostonyx torquatus), also known as Arctic lemming, which is present on all of the large islands and, in some places has been recorded to reach a density of 500 per km2 (1,300 per sq mi). TheArctic fox (Alopex lagopus) has been known to den on the islands, with several hundred observed in the 1980s. Other mammals occasionally observed include thewolf (Canis lupus), thepolar bear (Ursus maritimus),[52]ermine (Mustela erminea),walrus (Odobenus rosmarus),Arctic hare (Lepus timidus), andreindeer (Rangifer tarandus).[51]
The location of a secret Russian space weapons control facility is called Severnaya in the 1995James Bond filmGoldenEye. In several maps seen onscreen, however, this Severnaya is depicted as being in centralSiberia. Severnaya is a level inGoldenEye 007, a 1997 video game based on the Bond film.[55]
Severnaya is the site of the final act of the 2021 movieThe Tomorrow War, where the protagonists locate a crashed spaceship holding the dormant White Spike Aliens.[56]
^Louwrens Hacquebord:The Netherlands – Beset in the Ice of the Kara Sea. In: Susan Barr,Cornelia Lüdecke (eds.):The History of the International Polar Years (IPYs). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 2010,ISBN978-3-642-12401-3, p. 66
^abc"Nicholas II Land".Bulletin of the American Geographical Society.46 (2):117–120. 1 January 1914.doi:10.2307/199861.JSTOR199861.
^Lorenz, Henning; Männik, Peep; Gee, David; Proskurnin, Vasilij (May 2008). "Geology of the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago and the North Kara Terrane in the Russian high Arctic".International Journal of Earth Sciences.97 (3):519–547.Bibcode:2008IJEaS..97..519L.doi:10.1007/s00531-007-0182-2.S2CID129054785.
^abc"Arctic Ocean – Severnaya Zemlya". Archived from the original on 23 December 2010. Retrieved23 December 2010.. Oceandots.com. Retrieved on 19 October 2010.
^"Russian Arctic – Severnaya Zemlya". Archived from the original on 23 December 2010. Retrieved23 December 2010. (which also features dramatic satellite photos of the islands of the Severnaya Zemlya group).
