TheTokugawa shogunate had established itself in the early 17th century.[6] Under its rule, theshōgun governed Japan. About 180 lords, known asdaimyōs, ruledautonomous realms under theshōgun, and occasionally theshōgun called upon thedaimyōs for gifts but did not tax them. Theshōgun controlled thedaimyōs in other ways too; only theshōgun could approvedaimyōs marriages, and theshōgun could divest adaimyō of his lands.[7]
Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had officially retired from his position by 1605, was the first Tokugawashōgun. Upon retirement, Tokugawa Ieyasu and his sonTokugawa Hidetada, the titularshōgun, issued a code of behavior for the nobility in 1605. Under the code, the emperor was required to devote his time to scholarship and the arts.[8] The emperors under the shogunate appear to have adhered closely to this code by studyingConfucianclassics and devoting time to poetry and calligraphy.[9] Emperors were taught only the rudiments of Japanese and Chinese history and geography.[9] Theshōgun did not seek the consent or advice of the emperor for his actions.[10]
Emperors almost never left their palace compound, orGosho inKyoto, except after an emperor retired or to take shelter in a temple if the palace caught on fire.[11] Few emperors lived long enough to retire; of the Meiji emperor's five predecessors, only his grandfather and great-grandfather lived beyond the age of 40.[10] The Imperial Family suffered very high rates of infant mortality; all five of the emperor's brothers and sisters died as infants, and only five of his own 15 children reached adulthood.[10]
Soon after taking control in the early seventeenth century, shogunate officials (known generically asbakufu) ended almost all Western trade with Japan, and barred Christian missionaries from the islands under theSakoku Edict of 1635. In addition to the substantial Chinese trade, only the Dutch continued trade with Japan, maintaining a post on the island ofDejima byNagasaki.[12] However, by the early 19th century, European and American vessels appeared in the waters around Japan with increasing frequency.[13]
Prince Mutsuhito was born on 3 November 1852 in a small house on his maternal grandfather's property at the north end of theGosho. At the time, birth was culturally believed to be a source of pollution, so the imperial prince was not born in the Palace. Instead, it was common for members of the Imperial Family to be born in a structure, often temporary, near the pregnant woman's father's house. The Prince Mutsuhito's mother,Nakayama Yoshiko, was a concubine (Japanese:権の典侍,romanized: gon no tenji) to his fatherEmperor Kōmei, and she was the daughter of the acting major counselor,Nakayama Tadayasu.[14] The young prince was given the titleSachi-no-miya, or Prince Sachi.[15]
The young prince was born into an era of great change in Japan. This change was symbolized dramatically in July 1853 when CommodoreMatthew Perry and his American Naval squadron (what the Japanese dubbed "theBlack Ships"), sailed intothe harbor atEdo (known since 1868 as Tokyo).[16] Perry sought to open Japan up to international trade and showcased the modern cannons his fleet carried.[17] For the first time in at least 250 years, the shogunate took the highly unusual step of consulting with the Imperial Court because of the crisis brought on by Perry's arrival.[18] Emperor Kōmei's officials advised that they felt they should agree to trade with the Americans and asked that they be informed in advance of any steps to be taken upon Perry's return.[19] The Japanese government decided that their military was no match for the American military and thus allowed trade and submitted to what it dubbed the "Unequal Treaties".[20] "Unequal Treaties" meant giving up tariff authority and the right to try foreigners in its own courts.[17] The shogunate's willingness to consult with the Court was short-lived: in 1858, word ofa treaty arrived with a letter stating that due to shortness of time, it had not been possible to consult.[21] Emperor Kōmei was so incensed that he threatened to abdicate—though even this action would have required the consent of theshōgun.[22]
Much of the emperor's boyhood is known only through later accounts, which his biographer Donald Keene points out are often contradictory. One contemporary described Mutsuhito as healthy and strong, somewhat of a bully, and exceptionally talented atsumo. Another states that the prince was delicate and often ill. Some biographers state that he fainted when he first heard gunfire, while others deny this account.[23] On 16 August 1860, Sachinomiya[who?] was proclaimed prince of the blood and heir to the throne and was formally adopted byhis father's consort. Later that year on 11 November, he was proclaimed as the crown prince and given an adult name, Mutsuhito.[24] The prince began his education at the age of seven.[25] He proved an indifferent student, and later in life wrote poems regretting that he had not applied himself more in writing practice.[26]
By the early 1860s, the shogunate was under several threats. Representatives of foreign powers sought to increase their influence in Japan. Manydaimyōs were increasingly dissatisfied withbakufu handling foreign affairs. Large numbers of youngsamurai, known asshishi or "men of high purpose", began to meet and speak against the shogunate. Theshishi revered Emperor Kōmei and favored direct violent action to cure societal ills. While they initially desired the death or expulsion of all foreigners, theshishi would later begin to advocate the modernization of the country.[27] Thebakufu enacted several measures to appease the various groups in an effort to drive a wedge between theshishi anddaimyōs.[28]
Kyoto was a major center for theshishi and the shishi had influence over the Emperor Kōmei. In 1863, theshishi persuaded him to issue an "Order to expel barbarians". The Order placed the shogunate in a difficult position since they had no intention of enforcing the order because they did not have the power to carry it out. Several attacks were made on foreigners or their ships, and foreign forces retaliated.Bakufu forces were able to drive most of theshishi out of Kyoto, and an attempt by them to return in 1864 was driven back. Nevertheless, unrest continued throughout Japan.[28]
The prince's awareness of the political turmoil is uncertain.[29] During this time, he studiedwaka poetry, first with his father, then with the court poets.[30] In 1866, a new shōgun,Tokugawa Yoshinobu, took office as the prince continued his classical education. Tokugawa Yoshinobu was a reformer who desired to transform Japan into a Western-style state. Yoshinobu was the finalshōgun and met with resistance from among thebakufu, even as unrest and military actions continued. In mid-1866, abakufu army set forth to punish rebels in southern Japan. The army was defeated.[31]
Emperor Kōmei fell seriously ill at the age of 36 and died on 30 January 1867. British diplomat SirErnest Satow wrote, "it is impossible to deny that [Emperor Kōmei's] disappearance from the political scene, leaving as his successor a boy of fifteen or sixteen [actually fourteen], was most opportune".[32]
In a brief ceremony in Kyoto, the crown prince formallyascended to the throne on 13 February 1867.[33] The new emperor continued his classical education, which did not include matters of politics. In the meantime, theshōgun, Yoshinobu, struggled to maintain power. He repeatedly asked for the emperor's confirmation of his actions, which he eventually received, but there is no indication that the young emperor was himself involved in the decisions. Theshishi and other rebels continued to shape their vision of the new Japan, and although they revered the emperor, they had no thought of having him play an active part in the political process.[34]
The political struggle reached its climax in late 1867. An agreement was reached by which Yoshinobu would maintain his title and some of his power, but the lawmaking power would be vested in a bicameral legislature based on the British model. The agreement fell apart and on 9 November 1867, Yoshinobu officially tendered his resignation to the emperor and formally stepped down ten days later.[35] The following month, the rebels marched on Kyoto, taking control of the Imperial Palace.[36] On 4 January 1868, the emperor ceremoniously read out a document before the court proclaiming the "restoration" of Imperial rule,[37] and the following month, documents were sent to foreign powers:[36]
The Emperor of Japan announces to the sovereigns of all foreign countries and to their subjects that permission has been granted to theshōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu to return the governing power in accordance with his own request. We shall henceforward exercise supreme authority in all the internal and external affairs of the country. Consequently, the title of Emperor must be substituted for that ofTycoon, in which the treaties have been made. Officers are being appointed by us to the conduct of foreign affairs. It is desirable that the representatives of the treaty powers recognize this announcement.
On 23 October 1868 theera was changed fromKeiō to Meiji ('enlightened rule'), which was later used for the emperor's posthumous name. This marked the beginning of the custom of posthumously naming the emperor after the era during which he ruled.
In a conflict known as theBoshin War, Yoshinobu's followersbriefly resisted andbakufu holdouts were finally defeated in late 1869.[36]
Emperor Meiji receives Dutch Minister-Resident Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek in 1868
Despite the ouster of thebakufu, no effective central government had been put in place by the rebels. On 23 March the Dutch Minister-ResidentDirk de Graeff van Polsbroek and the French Minister-ResidentLéon Roches were the first European envoys ever to receive a personal audience with the new Emperor Meiji in Edo (Tokyo).[39][40] This audience laid the foundation for (modern) Dutch diplomacy in Japan.[41] Subsequently, De Graeff van Polsbroek assisted the emperor and the government in their negotiations with representatives of the major European powers.[42][41] On 7 April 1868, the emperor was presented with theCharter Oath, a five-point statement of the nature of the new government. The statement was designed to win over those who had not yet committed themselves to the new regime. This document, which the emperor then formally promoted, abolishedfeudalism and proclaimed a modern democratic government for Japan. The Charter Oath would later be cited byEmperor Shōwa in theHumanity Declaration as support for the imposed changes in Japanese government following World War II.[43] For the first time since early childhood, the emperor left the Imperial precincts in Kyoto in mid-May to take command of the forces pursuing the remnants of thebakufu armies. Traveling in slow stages due to through roads being lined with crowds, he took three days to travel from Kyoto to Osaka.[44] There was no conflict in Osaka; the new leaders wanted the emperor to be more visible to his people and to foreign envoys. At the end of May, after two weeks in Osaka (in a much less formal atmosphere than in Kyoto), the emperor returned to his home.[45] Shortly after his return, the emperor began to preside over all state business, reserving further literary study for his leisure time.[46] Only from 1871 onward did the emperor's studies include materials on contemporary affairs.[47]
The sixteen-year-old emperor, traveling fromKyoto to Tokyo at the end of 1868
On 19 September 1868, Mutsuhito changed the name of the city of Edo to Tokyo, meaning "eastern capital". He was formally crowned in Kyoto on 15 October (a ceremony which had been postponed from the previous year due to the civil unrest). Shortly before the coronation, he introduced a newnengō (era) calledMeiji ("enlightened rule"). Heretofore thenengō had often been changed multiple times in an emperor's reign; from now on there would only be onenengō per reign.[48]
Soon after his coronation, the emperor journeyed to Tokyoby road, visiting it for the first time. He arrived in late November and began an extended stay by distributingsake among the population. The population of Tokyo was eager for an Imperial visit. Tokyo had been the site of theshōgun's court and the city's population feared that with the abolition of the shogunate, the city might fall into decline.[49] It would not be until 1889 that a final decision was made to move the capital to Tokyo.[50] While in Tokyo, the emperor boarded a Japanese naval vessel for the first time, and the following day gave instructions for studies to see how Japan's navy could be strengthened.[51] Soon after his return to Kyoto, arescript was issued in the emperor's name (but most likely written by court officials). It indicated his intent to be involved in government affairs. And indeed he attended cabinet meetings and innumerable other government functions, though rarely speaking, almost until the day of his death.[52]
First-ever photograph of Emperor Meiji at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal byBaron Raimund von Stillfried on 1 January 1872
The successful revolutionaries organized themselves into a Council of State, and subsequently into a system where three main ministers led the government. This structure would last until the establishment of a prime minister, who would lead a cabinet in a western fashion, in 1885.[53] Initially, not even the retention of the emperor was certain; revolutionary leaderGotō Shōjirō later stated that some officials "were afraid the extremists might go further and abolish the Mikado".[54] Japan's new leaders sought to reform the patchwork system of domains governed by thedaimyōs. In 1869, several of thedaimyōs who had supported the revolution gave their land property to the emperor and were reappointed as governors, with considerable salaries. By the following year, all otherdaimyōs had followed suit.
In 1871, as Japan was organized into 72prefectures, the emperorabolished domains entirely. Thedaimyōs were compensated with annual salaries equal to ten percent of their former revenues (from which they now did not have to deduct the cost of governing), but were required to move to the new capital, Tokyo. Mostdaimyōs retired from politics.[55]
The new administration gradually abolished most privileges of the samurai, including their right to a stipend from the government. However, unlike thedaimyōs, many samurai suffered financially from this change. Most other class-based distinctions were abolished. Legalized discrimination against theburakumin ended. However, these classes continue to suffer discrimination in Japan to the present time.[56]
The1889 constitution created a newparliament, although it had no real power.[citation needed] Power had passed from the Tokugawa into the hands of thosedaimyōs and other samurai who had led the Restoration.[citation needed] Japan was thus controlled by theGenrō, anoligarchy which comprised the most powerful men of the military, political and economic spheres. The emperor showed greater political longevity than his recent predecessors, as he was the first Japanese monarch to remain on the throne past the age of 50 sinceEmperor Ōgimachi's abdication from the throne in 1586.[citation needed]
The Japanese take pride in the Meiji Restoration, as it and the accompanying industrialization allowed Japan to become the preeminent power in the Pacific and a major player in the world within ageneration. Yet, Emperor Meiji's role in the Restoration, as well as the amount of personal authority and influence he wielded during his reign, remains debatable. He kept no diary, wrote almost no letters (unlike his father) and left "no more than three or four" photographs.[citation needed] The accounts of people who had met or were close to him usually contain little substantial information or are mutually contradictory.[57]
Due to the lack of reliable sources of the period, mysteries surrounding Emperor Meiji's personality and role in the Restoration remain a matter of historical dispute.[58] James C. Baxter argues that the emperor was a figurehead without real power who rarely interfered with what had been agreed upon in advance by theMeiji oligarchy.[59][60] Conversely, Herbert Bix describes Meiji as a powerful autocrat whom the Genrō struggled to restrain while accommodating his anti-democratic inclinations.[61] R.Starr characterizes Meiji as a highly individualistic and forthright person who was no puppet to any group in his government, and although progressive, not 'liberal' or 'democratic'.[62] Yet another group of historians contend he was never a full dictator, but remain divided on whether his personal power was "far closer to the absolutist end".[63] or he merely played a mediating role in the Genrō's decision making.[64]
Emperor Meiji in later life. Emperor Meiji grew a large beard in his later years, which he became well-known for.
The victorious Emperor of Japan - beloved ruler of a new world power. The Emperor, who was born on 3 November 1852, succeeded to the throne on 3 February 1867, on the suppression of the Shogun dynasty, which had for generations wielded the power which the imperial family held only in name. Mutsuhito has proved the most practical of modern monarchs, for in less than forty years he has brought his country from semi-barbarism to the status of a first class power.[66]
Near the end of his life several leftists, includingShūsui Kōtoku, were executed (1911) on charges of having conspired to murder the sovereign. This conspiracy was known as theHigh Treason Incident (1910).[citation needed]
By 1912, Japan had gone through a political, economic, and social revolution and emerged as one of thegreat powers in the world.The New York Times summed up this transformation at the emperor's funeral in 1912 as: "the contrast between that which preceded the funeral car and that which followed it was striking indeed. Before it went old Japan; after it came new Japan."[69]
After the emperor's death in 1912, theJapanese Diet passed a resolution to commemorate his role in theMeiji Restoration. An iris garden in an area of Tokyo where Emperor Meiji and the Empress had been known to visit was chosen as the building's location for theShinto shrineMeiji Jingū. The shrine does not contain the emperor's grave, which is atFushimi-Momoyama Castle south ofKyoto.[70]
Soon after Meiji's ascension, the emperor's officials presentedIchijō Haruko to him as a possible bride. The future Empress was the daughter of an Imperial official, and was three years older than the groom, who would have to wait to wed until after hisgenpuku (manhood ceremony). The two married on 11 January 1869.[71] Known posthumously asEmpress Dowager Shōken, she was the first Imperial Consort to receive the title ofkōgō (literally, the emperor's wife, translated asEmpress Consort), in several hundred years. Although she was the first Japanese Empress Consort to play a public role, she bore no children. However, the Meiji Emperor had fifteen children[citation needed] by five official ladies-in-waiting. Only five of his children, a prince born toLady Naruko (1855–1943), the daughter of Yanagiwara Mitsunaru, and four princesses born toLady Sachiko (1867–1947), the eldest daughter ofCount Sono Motosachi, lived to adulthood. Although Meiji was the last emperor to haveconcubines, this function was not officiallyabolished until 1924.[citation needed]
• Second Princess: Imperial Princess Ume-no-Miya Shigeko • Second Prince: Imperial Prince Take-no-Miya Yukihito • Third Prince:Imperial Prince Haru-no-Miya Yoshihito (laterEmperor Taisho)
Emperor Meiji had thirteen[citation needed] children (four of them were sons and nine were daughters), five of them (a son and four daughters) reached adulthood.
He had eighteen grandchildren (eleven grandsons and seven granddaughters).
Emperor Meiji also appears in the 2003 filmThe Last Samurai, played byNakamura Shichinosuke II. In the film, the emperor is portrayed as a weak, inexperienced leader under the firm control of his councilors, who intend to have him sign a treaty that would give the United States special trading rights that would enrich them, but also cement foreign domination of Japan. The emperor's determination is only shown at the end of the movie, when he is inspired by a visit from Capt. Nathan Algren (played byTom Cruise), who fought alongside the rebel samurai, to reject the treaty and dismiss his advisors, declaring that Japan will modernize, but not at the cost of its traditions and history.
^Since the modern era, when an emperor of Japan dies, he is given aposthumous name. Such a name is a combination of theera during which he reigned and coincides with the emperor's contribution to the throne while he was alive. Therefore, he was publicly known during his life merely as "The Emperor", but he has been historically known as "Emperor Meiji" after his death. The name was officially given to him on 27 August 1912.[2] He obtained the current title in reference to the Meiji era, which spanned almost the entirety of his reign. His personal name (which is not used in any formal or official context, except for his signature) wasMutsuhito. He was also the first emperor to reign under the "one emperor, one era name"-system (一世一元,issei ichigen;[is.seii.tɕiꜜ.ɡeɴ,is.seː-][3]), under which an era ends only on emperor's death or abdication, whereas before, an era could change mid-reign after a significant event, such as a disaster.[4]
^On 1 May 1865 (the seventh day of the fourth month in the second year ofGenji),Emperor Kōmei changed the era name fromGenji toKeiō. Although Emperor Kōmei died on 30 January 1867 (the 25th day of the 12th month in the second year ofKeiō), and Emperor Meiji ascended to the throne on 13 February 1867 (the ninth day of the first month in the third year ofKeiō),Keiō still continued until 23 October 1868 (the eighth day of the ninth month in the fourth year ofKeiō), when Emperor Meiji changed the era name fromKeiō toMeiji.
^Gordon, Andrew (2003).A modern history of Japan : from Tokugawa times to the present. Oxford University Press. pp. 51–52.ISBN0195110609.OCLC49704795.
^Keene, Donald (2005).Emperor of Japan: Meiji and his world, 1852–1912. New York; Chichester: Columbia University Press. p. 18.ISBN978-0231123419.OCLC1059567148.
^Frans Stiene, ed. (26 April 2016)."Meiji Emperor Poems"(PDF). Translated by João Magalhães. No. 121.Archived(PDF) from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved19 September 2023.
^Considered by German JapanologistJohannes Justus Rein and described by Francis L. Hawks and Commodore Matthew Perry in their 1856 work,Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan Performed in the Years 1852, 1853 and 1854 under the Command of Commodore M.C. Perry, United States Navy., as the "Opening" of Japan.
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