Born as Prince Salim, he was the third and only surviving son of EmperorAkbar and his chief empress,Mariam-uz-Zamani. Akbar's quest for a successor took him to visit theHazrat Ishaan andSalim Chishti,Sufi saints who prophesied the birth of three sons. Jahangir's birth inFatehpur Sikri was seen as a fulfillment of Chishti's blessings, and he was named after him. His parents’ early life was marked by personal tragedy, including the death of his full twin brothers in infancy, which led to a sense of grief in his family. His early education was comprehensive, covering various subjects includingPersian,Hindustani, andmilitary tactics. Jahangir's upbringing was heavily influenced by the cultural and spiritual heritage of his family, setting the stage for his later rule as emperor.
His reign was marked by a combination of artistic achievement and political intrigue, set against the backdrop of theMughal Empire's considerable expansion and consolidation. Jahangir's rule is distinguished by his commitment to justice and his interest in the arts, particularly painting and architecture, which flourished during his reign. Jahangir's reign was characterized by a complex relationship with his nobility and family, notably reflected in his marriage to Mehar-un-Nisa (later known as EmpressNur Jahan), who wielded significant political influence behind the throne. This period saw the empire's further entrenchment into theIndian subcontinent, including efforts to subdue theRajput Kingdoms and extend Mughal authority into theDeccan. Jahangir's foreign policy included interactions with theSafavids ofPersia and theOttoman Empire, as well as with the EnglishEast India Company, marking the beginning of European influence in Indian politics and commerce.
Despite his achievements, Jahangir's reign had challenges, including revolts led by his sons, which threatened the stability of his rule. His poor health, caused by a lifetime ofopium and alcohol use, led to his death in 1627, precipitating a brief succession crisis before the throne passed to his son,Shah Jahan. Jahangir's legacy lives on through his contributions toMughal art and architecture, his memoirs, and the policies he implemented, which continued to influence the empire after his demise.
Prince Salim was the third son born toAkbar andMariam-uz-Zamani in the capital city ofFatehpur Sikri on 31 August 1569.[13][9][14] He had two full elder twin brothers,Hassan Mirza and Hussain Mirza, born in 1564, both of whom died in infancy.[15][16][17][18][19] Grief-struck, Akbar and Mariam-uz-Zamani, sought the blessings of Salim Chishti, a reputedkhawaja (religious leader) who lived at Fatehpur Sikri.[20] Akbar confided in Salim Chisti, who assured him that he would be soon delivered of three sons who would live up to a ripe old age. His parents, Akbar and Mariam Zamani, in hope of having a son born to them even made a pilgrimage toAjmer Sharif Dargah, barefoot, to pray for a son.[21][22]
When Akbar was informed that his chief wife was expecting a child again, an order was passed for the establishment of a royal palace in Fatehpur Sikri (today known as Rang Mahal) near the lodgings of Salim Chishti, where the Empress could enjoy the repose in the vicinity of the saint. Mariam Zamani was shifted to the palace established there and during her pregnancy, Akbar himself used to travel to Sikri and used to spend half of his time in Sikri and another half in Agra.[23]
During the time of Mariam-uz-Zamani’s pregnancy with Salim, says Jahangir in his memoirs, the baby stopped kicking in the womb abruptly. When the matter was reported to Akbar, who was engaged in hunt of cheetahs at that time, vowed that if the baby resumes kicking, he would never hunt cheetahs on Fridays throughout his life and Jahangir further notes, that Akbar kept his vow throughout his life. Jahangir, too, in reverence for his father's vow, never hunted cheetahs on Friday.[24] On 31 August 1569, Mariam Zamani gave birth to Salim, and he was named after Hazrat Salim Chisti, in acknowledgement of his father's faith in the efficacy of the holy man's prayer. Akbar, overjoyed with the news of his heir-apparent, ordered a great feast and festivities which were held up to seven days and ordered the release of criminals with great offence. Throughout the empire, largesses were bestowed over common people, and he set himself ready to visit Sikri immediately. However, he was advised by his courtiers to delay his visit to Sikri on account of the astrological belief in Hindustan of a father not seeing the face of his long-awaited son immediately after his birth. He, therefore, delayed his visit and visited Sikri to meet his new born son and wife after forty-one days after his birth.[25][26][27] Jahangir's foster mother was the daughter of Salim Chishti, and his foster brother wasQutubuddin Koka, the grandson of Chishti.[28][29]
Jahangir began his education at the age of five. On this occasion, a big feast was thrown by the Emperor to ceremonially initiate his son into education. His first tutor was Qutubuddin Koka. Many other tutors were appointed to teach Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Hindi, Arithmetic, History, Geography, and Sciences.Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, one of the versatile geniuses, was an important tutor of him.[30] His maternal uncle,Bhagwant Das theKachhwaha ruler ofAmer, was supposedly one of his tutors on the subject of warfare tactics.[citation needed] During this time, Jahangir grew up fluent inPersian and premodernUrdu, with a "respectable" knowledge of Persianified courtlyChaghatai ("Turki"), the Mughal ancestral language.[31]
On 24 February 1585, Jahangir married theKachwaha Rajput princess of Amer, Kunwari Manbhawat Deiji, in her native town Amer. A lavish ceremony took place inAmber Fort and the bride's palanquin was carried by Akbar and Salim for some distance in her honor. The gifts given by Mariam-uz-Zamani to the bride and bride-groom were valued at twelve lakh rupees.[32] She became his favorite wife and soon rose to the level of aconsort rather than being a mere wife. Jahangir notes that he was extremely fond of her and designated her as his chief consort in the royal harem in his princely days. Jahangir also records his attachment and affection for her and makes notes of her unwavering devotion towards him.[33] Jahangir honored her with the title "Shah Begum" after she gave birth to PrinceKhusrau Mirza, the eldest son of Jahangir.[34]
In 1587, he married aBhatiRajput princess (name not known) entitledMalika Jahan Begum daughter of Rawal Bhim Singh of the Kingdom ofJaisalmer. He also married the daughter of Raja Darya Malbhas.
In October 1590, Jahangir married Zohra Begum daughter of Mirza Sanjar Hazara. He married a third Rathore Rajput princess, Kunwari Karamsi Deiji, daughter of Rao Keshav Das ofMerta linked with the house ofMarwar.[36] On 11 January 1592, he married Kanwal Rani daughter of Ali Sher Khan by his wife Gul Khatun. In October 1592, he married a daughter of Sultan Husain Chak of theKashmir Sultanate. In January/March 1593, he marriedNur un-Nisa Begum daughter of aSafavid Persian prince Ibrahim Husain Mirza by his wife Gulrukh Begum a daughter ofKamran Mirza brother ofMughal EmperorHumayun. In September 1593, he married a daughter of Sultan Ali Khan Faruqi of theKhandesh Sultanate. He also married a daughter of Abdullah Khan Baluch ofSind.
Coin of Jahangir
In 1594, Jahangir was dispatched by his father, Akbar, alongsideAsaf Khan also known as Mirza Jafar Beg andAbu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak to defeat the renegade RajaVir Singh DeoBundela and to capture the city ofOrchha which was considered the centre of the revolt. Jahangir arrived with a force of 12,000 after many ferocious encounters and finally subdued the Bundela and ordered Vir Singh Deo to surrender. After tremendous casualties and the start of negotiations between the two, Vir Singh Deo handed over 5000 Bundela infantry and 1000 cavalry and submitted to the command of Jahangir along with taking up imperial services at the court later. The victorious Jahangir, at 26 years of age, ordered the completion of theJahangir Mahal a famous Mughal citadel in Orchha to commemorate and honour his victory.[citation needed]
From the very beginning of Jahangir reign as emperor, he witnessed the internal rivalry of the bundela chiefs for control.[37] Jahangir appointed his favourite Vir Singh, as the ruler of Orchha by removing his elder brother Raja Ram Shah.[37] This greatly hampered the interest of Ram Shah's house.[37] Thus, Ram Shah along with his family members Bharat Shah, Indrajit, Rao Bhupal, Angad, Prema, and Devi (the wife of the deposed king) raised their arms in rebellion.[37] However, Ram Shah was defeated by his brother Vir Singh with the help of imperial army under Abdullah Khan.[37] Then the deposed Bundela chief escaped and continued to fight the Mughals for two years until he was finally arrested in 1607 and put in prison atGwalior only later to be given the territory ofChanderi as his patrimony.
On 28 June 1596, he marriedKhas Mahal Begum daughter of Zain Khan Koka the imperialSubahdar ofKabul andLahore. This marriage was initially opposed by Akbar as he did not approve of the marriage of cousins to the same man however seeing the melancholy of Salim being refused to marry her, Akbar approved of this union. She became one of his chief consorts after her marriage.
In 1608, he marriedSaliha Banu Begum, daughter of Qasim Khan a senior member of the Imperial Household. She became one of his chief consorts and was designated the honorary title of "Padshah Begum" and for most of the reign of Jahangir retained this title. After her death, this title was passed to Nur Jahan.
Coin of Jahangir depicting him the Moghul Emperor of Hindustan
On 17 June 1608, he married a second Kachwaha Rajput princess, Kunwari Koka Kumari, eldest daughter of Jagat Singh, the deceased heir apparent or "Yuvraj" ofAmber and granddaughter ofMirzaRajaMan Singh I. This marriage was held at the palace of Jahangir's mother, Mariam-uz-Zamani, in Agra. On 11 January 1610, he accepted the hand of the daughter of Raja Ram ShahBundela ofOrchha in marriage to mark a formal end to the hostilities between them.[38]
Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa (better known by her subsequent title ofNur Jahan) on 25 May 1611. She was the widow of a high-rankingPersian noblemanSher Afgan. Mehr-un-Nisa became his utmost favorite wife after their marriage and was the last of his chief consorts. She was witty, intelligent, and beautiful, which attracted Jahangir to her. Before being awarded the title of Nur Jahan ('Light of the World'), she was called Nur Mahal ('Light of the Palace'). After the death of Saliha Bano Begum in the year 1620, she was designated the title of "Padshah Begum" and held it until the death of Jahangir in 1627. Her abilities are said to range from fashion and jewellery designing, perfumery, hunting to building architectural monuments and more.
Celebrations at the accession of Jahangir in 1600, whenAkbar was away from the capital on an expedition, Salim organised a coup and declared himself emperor. Akbar had to hastily return toAgra and restore order.Commemorative Coin of Jahangir for 6th year of rule; withLion and Sun symbol and Legends inPersian. 1611
He succeeded the throne on Thursday, 3 November 1605, eight days after his father's death. Salim ascended the throne with the imperial grand title of Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir Badshah Ghazi and thus began his 22-year reign at the age of 36.
Soon after, Jahangir had to fend off his sonKhusrau Mirza when he attempted to claim the throne based on Akbar's will. Khusrau Mirza was defeated in the year 1606 with the support of theBarha and Bukharisāda and confined in the fort ofAgra.[49] Jahangir was found to be more militarily capable, and he crushed the rebellion in a week. Jahangir had all the young aristocrat supporters of Khusrau tortured, impaled and made him watch them in agony as a warning.[50] After a rebellion the second time, as punishment, Khusrau Mirza was handed over to his younger brother and was partially blinded.
From the time of his marriage with Mehr-un-Nissa, later known as EmpressNur Jahan, Jahangir left the reins of government in her hands and appointed her family and relatives to high positions. Nur Jahan had complete freedom of speech near Jahangir without any reprimand. On the contrary, she could nag and fight with him on the smallest issue. Thus, her unprecedented freedom of action to control the state caused the displeasure of both his courtiers and foreigners.[51]
Silver Rupee of Mughal emperor Jahangir, Ahmednagar Mint.
In 1613, Jahangir issued a sanguinary order for the extirpation of the race of theKolis who were notorious robbers and plunders living in the most inaccessible parts of the province ofGujarat. A large number of the Koli chiefs were slaughtered and the rest hunted to their mountains and deserts. 169 heads of such Koli chiefs killed in battle by Nur-ul-llah Ibrahim, commander of 'Bollodo'.[56][57] In the same year later,[58] the Portuguese seized the Mughal shipRahimi, which had set out from Surat on its way with a large cargo of 100,000 rupees and Pilgrims, who were on their way toMecca andMedina to attend the annualHajj. TheRahimi was owned byMariam-uz-Zamani, mother of Jahangir and Akbar's favourite consort.[14] She was bestowed the title of 'Mallika-e-Hindustan' (Queen ofHindustan) by Akbar and was subsequently referred to as same during Jahangir's reign. TheRahimi was the largest Indian ship sailing in theRed Sea and was known to the Europeans as the "great pilgrimage ship". When the Portuguese officially refused to return the ship and the passengers, the outcry at the Mughal court was unusually severe. The outrage was compounded by the fact that the owner and the patron of the ship was none other than the revered mother of the current emperor. Jahangir himself was outraged and ordered the seizure of the Portuguese townDaman. He ordered the apprehension of all Portuguese within the Mughal Empire; he further confiscated churches that belonged to theJesuits. This episode is considered to be an example of the struggle for wealth that would later ensue and lead to colonisation of the Indian sub-continent. Jahangir then gathered his forces under the command of Ali Kuli Khan and fought Raja Lakshmi Narayan Bhup of the Kingdom ofKoch Bihar in the far eastern province ofBengal. Raja Lakshmi Narayan then accepted the Mughals as his suzerains and was given the titleNazir, later establishing a garrison at Atharokotha. Jahangir was responsible for ending a century-long struggle with theSisodiaRajput house ofMewar. The campaign against them was pushed so extensively that they were made to submit with great loss of life and property.[citation needed]
In 1614, TheEast India Company persuadedKing James I to send a British ambassador to the Mughal court,Thomas Roe. Thomas Roe describes how petitioners could use the chain of justice to attract the emperor's attention if his decision was not to their satisfaction duringDarshana. The Darshana tradition was adopted by the Mughal Emperors from Hindu religio-political rituals.[59] As a royal envoy to the Agra court of Jahangir.[60] Roe resided at Agra for three years, until 1619. At the Mughal court, Roe allegedly became a favourite of Jahangir and may have been his drinking partner; he arrived with gifts of "many crates of red wine"[60]: 16 and explained to him what beer was and how it was made.[60]: 17 The immediate result of the mission was to obtain permission and protection for an East India Companyfactory atSurat. While no major trading privileges were conceded by Jahangir, "Roe's mission was the beginning of a Mughal-Company relationship that would develop into something approaching a partnership and see the "EIC" gradually drawn into the Mughal nexus".[60]: 19 While Roe's detailed journals[61] are a valuable source of information on Jahangir's reign, the Emperor did not return the favour, with no mention of Roe in his voluminous diaries.[60]: 19
In 1615, Jahangir capturedKangra Fort, whose Katoch rulers came under Mughal vassalship during the reign ofAkbar. Consequently, a siege was laid and the fort was taken in 1620, which "resulted in the submission of the Raja ofChamba who was the greatest of all the rajas in the region." The district ofKishtwar, in the vast province ofKashmir, was also conquered the same year.[citation needed]
In October 1616, Jahangir sent Prince Khurram to fight against the combined forces of three rebel kingdoms ofAhmednagar,Bijapur andGolconda.[62] Jahangir considered his third son, Khurram (regnal nameShah Jahan) as his favourite son.
In 1621 of February, However, when Nur Jahan married her daughter,Mihr-un-nissa Begum, to Jahangir's youngest son,Shahryar Mirza, Khurram suspected that his stepmother was trying to maneuver Shahryar as the successor to Jahangir. Using the rugged terrain of Deccan to his advantage, Khurram launched a rebellion against Jahangir in 1622. This precipitated a political crisis in Jahangir's court. Khurram murdered his blind older brother, Khusrau Mirza, to smooth his path to the throne.[63] Simultaneously, theSafavid emperorAbbas the Great attackedKandahar in the winter of 1622. Since it was both a commercial center at the border of the Mughal Empire and the burial place ofBabur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, Jahangir dispatched Prince Shahryar to repel the Safavids. However, due to Shahryar's inexperience and harsh Afghan winter,Kandahar fell to the Safavids.
Shah Abbas I receiving Khan Alam, ambassador from Jahangir in 1617
In 1623, Emperor Jahangir sent histehsildar, Khan Alam, to SafavidPersia, accompanied by 800 sepoys, scribes and scholars, along with tenhowdahs well decorated in gold and silver, to negotiate peace with Emperor Abbas after a brief conflict in the region around Kandahar.[citation needed] Khan Alam soon returned with valuable gifts and groups ofmasters of the hunt (Persian:میر شکار,romanized: mir shikār) from both Safavid Iran and theKhanates of Central Asia.[citation needed] On March, Jahangir orderedMahabat Khan, one of Jahangir's most loyal high generals, to crush Khurram's rebellion in theDeccan. After a series of victories by Mahabat Khan over Khurram, the civil war finally ended in October 1625.[62][10]
In 1626, Jahangir began to contemplate an alliance between theOttoman Empire, the Mughals, and theKhanate of Bukhara of theUzbeks against the Safavids, who had defeated the Mughals atKandahar.[64] He even wrote a letter to the OttomanSultan,Murad IV. Jahangir's ambition did not materialise due to his death in 1627.
A lifelong user of opium and wine, Jahangir was frequently ill in the 1620s. Jahangir was trying to restore his health by visiting Kashmir and Kabul. He went from Kabul to Kashmir but decided to return toLahore because of a severe cold.
In 1627 on 29 October, during the journey from Kashmir to Lahore, Jahangir died nearBhimber.[65] To embalm and preserve his body, the entrails were removed; these were buried insideBaghsar Fort near Bhimber in Kashmir. The body was then conveyed by palanquin to Lahore and was buried inShahdara Bagh, a suburb of that city. His son, Shah Jahan, commissioned histomb and is today a popular tourist attraction site.[citation needed]
Jahangir's death launched a minor succession crisis. While Nur Jahan desired her son-in-law, Shahryar Mirza, to take the throne, her brotherAbu'l-Hassan Asaf Khan was corresponding with his son-in-law, Prince Khurram to take over the throne. To counter Nur Jahan, Abu'l Hassan putDawar Bakhsh as the puppet ruler and confined Nur Jahan in the Shahdara. Upon his arrival in Agra in February 1628, Prince Khurram executed both Shahryar and Dawar and took the regnal nameShah Jahan (Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram).[66]
Jahangir was famous for his "Chain of Justice". In contemporary paintings, it has been shown as a golden chain with golden bells. In his memoirTuzk-e-Jahangiri, he wrote that he ordered the creation of this chain for his subjects to appeal to the emperor if they were denied justice at any level.[59]
Jahangir also took interest in public health and medicine. After his accession, he passed twelve orders, of which at least two were related to this area. The fifth order forbade the manufacturing and sale of rice spirit and any kind of intoxicating drugs, and the tenth order was instrumental in laying the foundation of free hospitals and appointment of physicians in all the cities of his empire.[67]
According toM. Athar Ali, Jahangir generally continued the religious policy of Akbar and had a major interest inpantheism.[68]
At the start of his regime, many staunch Sunnis were hopeful, because he seemed less tolerant of other faiths than his father had been. At the time of his accession and the elimination of Abu'l Fazl, his father's chief minister and the architect of his eclectic religious stance, a powerful group of orthodox noblemen had gained increased power in the Mughal court. This included nobles especially likeShaykh Farid, Jahangir's trustedMir Bakhshi, who held firmly the citadel of orthodoxy in Muslim India.[69] Another influence for Jahangir changed his religious policies was due to the action ofAhmad Sirhindi, who routinely attend the court debates to counteract some religious beliefs and doctrines which prevalent in the court.[70] In the process, it is recorded from these correspondence which compiled in 1617, that Farid Murtaza Khan took Ahmad Sirhindi advices regarding this matter.[71][failed verification] His efforts influencedAbul Fazl, protegee of emperor Akbar, to support Ahmad Sirhindi in effort to convince Jahangir to reverse the policies of Akbar of tolerating Hindus in Mughal court.[72]Yohanan Friedmann has noted that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical though of Ahmad Sirhindi has inspired the religious orthodoxy of emperorAurangzeb.[73][74]: 162–163 This was noted by how Ahmad Sirhindi manage to influence the successor of emperor Akbar, starting from Jahangir, into reversing Akbar policies such as lifting marriage age limits, mosque abolishments, andHijra methodology revival which abandoned by his father.[75] It is noted by historians that this influence has been significantly recorded during the conquest ofKangra under Jahangir, that at the presence of Ahmad Sirhindi who observed the campaign, the Mughal forces had the Idols broken, a cow slaughtered,Khutbah sermon read, and other Islamic rituals performed.[76] Further mark of Jahangir departure from Akbar secular policy were recorded Terry, a traveller, who came and observed India region between 1616 and 1619, where he found the mosques full of worshippers, the exaltation of Quran and Hadith practical teaching, and the complete observance ofFasting during Ramadan andEid al-Fitr celebrations.[76]
Jahangir issued bans on cowslaugher and animal slaughter on certain days of the week in continuance of his father's policy. According to theDabistan-i Mazahib he appointed Srikant of Kashmir to be qazi of the Hindus so that they would have their own judicial representative. He also continued his father's policy of patronizing Brahmins and temples. Notably he issued several grants to theChaitanya sect for their temples inVrindavan, but also made negative comments about their temples. He, like his father, dissaproved of reincarnation and idol worship and ordered the boar image to be removed from Rana Shankar's temple atPushkar.[77]
Most notorious was the execution of theSikhGuru Arjan Dev on Jahangir's orders. His lands were confiscated and his sons imprisoned as Jahangir suspected him of helping Khusrau's rebellion.[78] It is unclear whether Jahangir even understood what a Sikh was, referring to Guru Arjan as a Hindu, who had "captured many of the simple-hearted of the Hindus and even of the ignorant and foolish followers of Islam, by his ways and manners... for three or four generations (of spiritual successors) they had kept this shop warm." The trigger for Guru Arjan's execution was his support for Jahangir's rebel sonKhusrau Mirza, yet it is clear from Jahangir's own memoirs that he disliked Guru Arjan before then: "many times it occurred to me to put a stop to this vain affair or bring him into the assembly of the people of Islam."[79] Guru Arjan's successor Guru Hargobind was imprisoned for sometime but released soon. He developed friendly relations with Jahangir and accompanied him on his journey to Kashmir just before the latter's death.[80]
According to Jahangir's memoirs, he issued a farman banning Jain seorahs (monks) due to alleged scandalous behavior. However, the ban was quickly rescinded but Jahangir neglected to mention that in his memoirs. There is a wide variety of evidence that Jahangir had good relations with Jains and Jain sources themselves extol him. According to Ali, Jahangir wrote his memoirs with his intended audience of Persian-speaking Muslims in mind and sought to portray himself as an anti-idolatry sultan and thus "modified" facts.[81] Jahangir's memoirs also omit the fact that three of his nephews at one point converted to Christianity with his permission, although they would later reverse their decision.[82]
He issued 'Jahangiri coins' which had his own portrait. He even issued the zodiac series of gold and silver coins which had images of zodiac symbols alongside the radiating sun in the background, due to his faith in astrology. The sign of the zodiac was substituted for the month in which the coin was minted. All of this was considered haram by the ulema due to which his successor Shahjahan ordered all those coins melted, accounting for their extreme rarity now.[83][84]
Jahangir had a strong inclination toward pragmatism, reason and skepticism. He often remarked on unusual occurrences by stating, "This is so strange, it is recorded here," or dismissing claims that defied logic with, "It does not accord with reason, and my mind does not accept it." While he upheld religious tolerance, his patience did not extend to deceitful religious practices. He swiftly punished a self-proclaimed guru who displeased him, expelled a yogi while destroying his idol, and imprisoned a renowned Muslim scholar who, in his view, held an inflated sense of self-importance and hoodwinked people by peddling mysticism. However, he was not without his own biases. He maintained a deep reverence for the tombs of saints and firmly believed in the power of holy men’s prayers, particularly those he credited with enabling his birth. He held faith in astrology and ensured he gave alms to counteract the negative effects of unfavorable planetary alignments.[85]
According toRichard M Eaton, Emperor Jahangir issued many edicts admonishing his nobles not to convert the religion of anybody by force, but the issuance of such orders also suggests that such conversions must have occurred during his rule in some measure. He continued the Mughals tradition of being scrupulously secular in outlook. Stability, loyalty, and revenue were the main focus, not the religious change among their subjects.[86]
Jahangir was fascinated with art and architecture. In his autobiography, theJahangirnama, Jahangir recorded events that occurred during his reign, descriptions of flora and fauna that he encountered, and other aspects of daily life, and commissioned court painters such asUstad Mansur to paint detailed pieces that would accompany his vivid prose.[88] For example, in 1619, he put pen to paper in awe of a royal falcon delivered to his court from the ruler of Iran: "What can I write of the beauty of this bird's colour? It had black markings, and every feather on its wings, back, and sides was extremely beautiful," and then recorded his command that Ustad Mansur paint a portrait of it after it perished.[89] "Nadiri" was a type of exclusive clothing designed by Jahangir, reserved for his personal use and esteemed courtiers.[90] Jahangir bound and displayed much of the art that he commissioned in elaborate albums of hundreds of images, sometimes organized around a theme such as zoology.[91]
Jahangir himself was far from modest in his autobiography when he stated his prowess at being able to determine the artist of any portrait by simply looking at a painting. As he said:
...my liking for painting and my practice in judging it have arrived at such point when any work is brought before me, either of deceased artists or of those of the present day, without the names being told me, I say on the spur of the moment that is the work of such and such a man. And if there is a picture containing many portraits and each face is the work of a different master, I can discover which face is the work of each of them. If any other person has put in the eye and eyebrow of a face, I can perceive whose work the original face is and who has painted the eye and eyebrow.
Jahangir took his connoisseurship of art very seriously. He also preserved paintings from Emperor Akbar's period. An excellent example of this is the painting done byUstad Mansur of MusicianNaubat Khan, son-in-law of legendaryTansen. In addition to their aesthetic qualities, paintings created under his reign were closely catalogued, dated and even signed, providing scholars with fairly accurate ideas as to when and in what context many of the pieces were created.
In the foreword toW. M. Thackston's translation of the Jahangirnama,Milo Cleveland Beach explains that Jahangir ruled during a time of considerably stable political control, and had the opportunity to order artists to create art to accompany his memoirs that were "in response to the emperor's current enthusiasms".[92] He used his wealth and his luxury of free time to chronicle, in detail, the lush natural world that the Mughal Empire encompassed. At times, he would have artists travel with him for this purpose; when Jahangir was in Rahimabad, he had his painters on hand to capture the appearance of a specific tiger that he shot and killed because he found it to be particularly beautiful.[93]
He had his artistGovardhan travel to Prayagraj(Allahabad) to paint sadhus. This resulted in the earliest set of images depicting sadhus in all yogic positions.[50]
The Jesuits had brought with them various books, engravings, and paintings and, when they saw the delight Akbar held for them, sent for more and more of the same to be given to the Mughals. They felt the Mughals were on the "verge of conversion", a notion which proved to be very false. Instead, both Akbar and Jahangir studied this artwork very closely and replicated and adapted it, adopting much of the early iconographic features and later the pictorial realism for whichRenaissance art was known. Jahangir was notable for his pride in the ability of his court painters. A classic example of this is described inSir Thomas Roe's diaries, in which the Emperor had his painters copy a European miniature several times creating a total of five miniatures. Jahangir then challenged Roe to pick out the original from the copies, a feat Sir Thomas Roe could not do, to the delight of Jahangir.[citation needed]
Jahangir was also revolutionary in his adaptation of European styles. A collection at theBritish Museum in London contains seventy-four drawings of Indian portraits dating from the time of Jahangir, including a portrait of the emperor himself. These portraits are a unique example of art during Jahangir's reign because faces were not drawn in full, including the shoulders as well as the head as these drawings are.[94]
Jahangir is widely considered to have been a weak and incapable ruler.[95][96][97][98] OrientalistHenry Beveridge (editor of theTuzk-e-Jahangiri) compares Jahangir to the Roman emperorClaudius, for both were "weak men... in their wrong places as rulers... [and had] Jahangir been head of a Natural History Museum,... [he] would have been [a] better and happier man."[99] Further he notes, "He made no addition to the imperial territories, but on the contrary, diminished them by losing Qandahar to the Persians. But possibly his peaceful temper, or his laziness, was an advantage, for it saved much bloodshed. His greatest fault as a king was his subservience to his wife, Nur-Jahan, and the consequent quarrel with his son, Shah Jahan, who was the ablest and best of his male children".[100]Sir William Hawkins, who visited Jahangir's court in 1609, said: "In such short that what this man's father, called Ecber Padasha [Badshah Akbar], got of theDeccans, this king, Selim Sha [Jahangir] beginneth to lose."[99] Italian writer and traveller,Niccolao Manucci, who worked under Jahangir's grandson,Dara Shikoh, began his discussion of Jahangir by saying: "It is a truth tested by experience that sons dissipate what their fathers gained in the sweat of their brow."[99]
According toJohn F. Richards, Jahangir's frequent withdrawal to a private sphere of life was partly reflective of his indolence, brought on by his addiction to a considerable daily dosage of wine and opium.[101]
Jahangir had a keen interest in conducting his own scientific experiments. He challenged the widely accepted belief about the aggressiveness of mountain sheep, investigated the effectiveness of bitumen for healing broken bones using a chicken (which proved ineffective), and compared the air quality of Ahmadabad and Mahmudabad by observing the rate of decay in sheep carcasses. Additionally, he actively engaged in animal husbandry and goat breeding, accurately estimated the gestation period of elephants, and studied the livers of lions and wolves to determine whether the location of their gall bladders, whether they were inside or outside the liver, correlated with courage.[85]
Jahangirer Swarnamudra is a detective story about a missinggold coin of Jahangir written by Indian filmmakerSatyajit Ray, starring his famous characterFeluda. It was adapted as a television film in 1998.
Jahangir is a principal character in Indu Sundaresan's award-winning historical novelThe Twentieth Wife (2002)[109] as well as in its sequelThe Feast of Roses (2003).[110]
Jahangir is a principal character in Alex Rutherford's novelRuler of the World (2011)[111] as well as in its sequelThe Tainted Throne (2012)[112] of the seriesEmpire of the Moghul.
Jahangir is a character in novel Nur Jahan's Daughter (2005) written by Tanushree Poddar.[113]
Jahangir is a character in the novelBeloved Empress Mumtaz Mahal: A Historical Novel by Nina Consuelo Epton.[114]
Jahangir is a principal character in the novelNurjahan: A historical novel by Jyoti Jafa.[115]
Jahangir is a character in the novelTaj, a Story of Mughal India by Timeri Murari.[116]
^Henry Beveridge,Akbarnama of Abu'l Fazl Volume II (1907), p. 503
^Emperor of India, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama: memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India. Translated by Thackston, W. M. Washington, D. C.: Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 12.ISBN978-0-19-512718-8.
^Trimizi, S. A. I. (1989).Mughal Documents. Manohar. p. 31.
^Sarkar, Jadunath (1952).Mughal Administration. M. C. Sarkar. pp. 156–57.
^abcdFoster, Sir William (1975).Early travels in India, 1583-1619. AMS Press. pp. 100–101.ISBN978-0-404-54825-4.
^Andrew J. Newman,Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam 632 to 1722 (Edinburgh University Press, 2013), online version: p. 48: "Jahangir [was] ... a Sunni."
^John F. Richards,The Mughal Empire (Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 103
^ab"Jahāngīr".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archived from the original on 24 July 2018. Retrieved2 June 2018.
^Journal of Historical Research. 1983. p. 80.Jahangir became the Emperor of Hindustan. However, Jahangir could not place absolute reliance on the old nobility
^Versha Gupta (27 July 2018).Botanical Culture of Mughal India. Partridge. p. 75.ISBN978-1-5437-0336-8.Kashmir was Jahangir's first love always. First time he visited along Kashmir with his father in 1589. He had scholarly instinct and love of nature. After he became the emperor of Hindustan, he visited the happy valley for a number of times for enjoying the cool and refreshing air of the valley
^Schimmel, Annemarie (2004).The empire of the great Mughals: history, art and culture. Corinne Attwood, Burzine K. Waghmar, Francis Robinson. London: Reaktion Books. p. 35.ISBN1-86189-185-7.OCLC61751123.
^Thompson, Della (1995).The 9th edition of the concise oxford Dictionary of English. Vol. 7. Oxford University Press.
^Ahmad, Aziz (1964).Studies of Islamic culture in the Indian Environment. Clarendon Press.
^Findly 1993, p. 189: "Jahangir opened his memoirs with a tribute to the Sufi, calling him 'the fountainhead of most of the saints of India', and in late 1608 he recalled his father's pilgrimage with Mariam-uz-Zamani to Khawaja Moinuddin Chisti's shrine in hopes of sons by making his own pilgrimage to Akbar's tomb in Sikandra."
^Ahmed, Nizamuddin (1599).Tabaqat-i-Akbari. p. 144.
^Beveridge, H. (1907).The Akbarnama Of Abul Fazl Vol. 2. pp. 502–506.
^Ahmad Khwajah Nizamuddin (1936).The Tabaqat-i-akbari Vol-ii. pp. 357–358.
^Lowe, W. H. (1884).Muntakhab - Ut - Tawarikh Vol. 2. pp. 112, 124.
^Rogers, Alexander; Beveridge, Henry, eds. (1909).The Tūzuk-i-Jahāngīrī or Memoirs of Jahāngīr, Volume 2. Royal Asiatic Society, London. p. 62.
^Jahangir, Emperor of Hindustan (1999).The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India. Translated byThackston, Wheeler M. Oxford University Press. p. 65.ISBN978-0-19-512718-8.Qutbuddin Khan Koka's mother passed away. She had given me milk in my mother's stead—indeed, she was kinder than a mother—and I had been raised from infancy in her care. I took one of the legs of her bier on my own shoulder and carried it a bit of the way. I was so grieved and depressed that I lost my appetite for several days and did not change my clothes.
^Dimensions of Indian Womanhood, Volume 3. 1993. p. 338.
^Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan Vol II. p. 361.
^abcdeAmir Ahmad (2005). "The Bundela Revolts During the Mughal Period: A Dynastic Affair".Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.66: 439.ISSN2249-1937.JSTOR44145860.
^Nicoll, Fergus.Shah-Jahan: The Rise and Fall of the Mughal Emperor.In fact, official records indicate that Khurram's father had at least twelve more wives, including the (unnamed) daughters of Mirza Muhammad Hakim.
^Fazl, Abul.Akbarnama Vol. III. p. 883.On this day also Sultan Parviz had a sister born.
^Fazl, Abul.Akbarnama Vol. III.On the 21st, after the passing of 8 hours and 28 minutes, a sister to Sulān Parvīz was born. It is the rule that H.M. promptly gives names to the children and grandchildren. Though the inner servants expressed a wish that he would do this, he did not accept the proposition. Suddenly that newly-born one descended into non-existence, and H.M.'s knowledge of hidden things was anew displayed!
^abcdeDalrymple, Willian (2019).The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company (1 ed.). London: Bloomsbury. pp. 15–19.ISBN978-1-4088-6437-1.
^abLal, Ruby (2018).Empress - The astonishing reign of Nur Jahan (1st ed.). United States of America: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 126, 191.ISBN978-0-393-23934-8.
^Hasan Murtaza (1946). "7. Letters of Sheikh Ahmad. (A New Source of Historical Study) [1563—1624 A. D.]".Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.9:273–281.JSTOR44137073.n : It v as written from the Imperial Camp. It shows that the Imam was held in esteem in the Imperial Court, used to attend it daily and by his daily debates there used to counter-act the beliefs and doctrines pre- valent in court. /It almost gives a list of the beliefs and doctrines which were discussed, criticised and ridiculed in the Court. T
^Irfan Habib (1960). "The Political Role of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi and Shah Waliullah".Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.23:209–223.ISSN2249-1937.JSTOR44304065.There is no real proof ... that Shaikh Farid ever took Shaikh Ahmad's advice
^abJahangir, Emperor of Hindustan (1999).The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India. Translated by Thackston, Wheeler M. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. xxiv.ISBN978-0-19-512718-8.
^Verma, Som Prakash (1999).Mughal Painter of Flora and Fauna: Ustād Manṣūr. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 25.
^Losty, J.P. (2013). Sharma, M; Kaimal, P (eds.).The Carpet at the Window: a European Motif in the Mughal Jharokha Portrait. Indian Painting: Themes, History and Interpretations; Essays in Honour of B.N. Goswamy. Ahmedabad: Mapin Publishing. pp. 52–64.
^Lach, Donald F.; Kley, Edwin J. Van (1998).Asia in the Making of Europe Vol. III, Bk. 2: A Century of Advance, South Asia (Pbk. ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 629.ISBN978-0-226-46767-2.
^Flores, Jorge (2015).The Mughal Padshah: A Jesuit Treatise on Emperor Jahangir's Court and Household. Brill. p. 9.ISBN978-90-04-30753-7.
^Beveridge, Henry.Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. Vol. II. Royal Asiatic Society, London. p. 6(preface).Archived from the original on 31 August 2022. Retrieved31 August 2022.
^Richards, John F (2008).The New Cambridge History of India: Mughal Empire. Delhi: Cambridge University Press. p. 102.ISBN978-81-85618-49-4.
Andrea, Alfred J.; Overfield, James H. (2005).The Human Record: Sources of Global History. Vol. 2: Since 1500 (Fifth ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.ISBN978-0-618-37041-2.
Alvi, Sajida S. (1989). "Religion and State during the Reign of Mughal Emperor Jahǎngǐr (1605–27): Nonjuristical Perspectives".Studia Islamica (69):95–119.doi:10.2307/1596069.JSTOR1596069.
Findly, Ellison B. (April–June 1987). "Jahāngīr's Vow of Non-Violence".Journal of the American Oriental Society.107 (2):245–256.doi:10.2307/602833.JSTOR602833.
Gascoigne, Bamber; Gascoigne, Christina (1998) [1971].The Great Moghuls. London: Constable. pp. 130–179.OCLC39270860.
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