Anemperor (fromLatin:imperator, viaOld French:empereor)[1] is the (male) ruler of anempire.Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules in her own right and name (empress regnant orsuo jure). Emperors are generally recognized to be of the highest monarchichonour andrank, surpassingking. InEurope, the title of Emperor has been used since theMiddle Ages, considered in those times equal or almost equal in dignity to that ofPope due to the latter's position as visible head of the Church and spiritual leader of the Catholic part ofWestern Europe. Theemperor of Japan is the only currentlyreigning monarch whose title is translated into English as "Emperor".[2]
Both emperors and kings aremonarchs or sovereigns, both emperor and empress are considered monarchical titles. In as much as there is a strict definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler and typically rules over more than one nation. Therefore, a king might be obliged to paytribute to another ruler,[3] or be restrained in his actions in some unequal fashion, but an emperor should in theory be completely free of such restraints. However, monarchs heading empires have not always used the title in all contexts—theBritish sovereign did not assume the title Empress of theBritish Empire even during theincorporation of India, though she was declaredEmpress of India.
InWestern Europe, the title of Emperor was used exclusively by theHoly Roman Emperor, whose imperial authority was derived from the concept oftranslatio imperii, i.e., they claimed succession to the authority of theRoman emperors, thus linking themselves to Roman institutions and traditions as part of state ideology. Although initially ruling much of Central Europe and northern Italy, by the 19th century, the emperor exercised little power beyond the German-speaking states.
Although technically an elective title, by the late 16th century, the imperial title had in practice come to be inherited by theHabsburgArchdukes of Austria and, following theThirty Years' War, their control over the states (outside theHabsburg monarchy, i.e.Austria,Bohemia and various territories outside the empire) had become nearly non-existent. However,Napoleon Bonaparte was crownedEmperor of the French in 1804 and was shortly followed byFrancis II, Holy Roman Emperor, who declared himselfEmperor of Austria in the same year. The position of Holy Roman Emperor nonetheless continued until Francis II abdicated that position in 1806. InEastern Europe, the monarchs ofRussia also usedtranslatio imperii to wield imperial authority as successors to theEastern Roman Empire. Their status was officially recognized by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, although not officially used by the Russian monarchs until 1547. However, the Russian emperors are better known by their Russian-language title ofTsar even afterPeter the Great adopted the title ofEmperor of All Russia in 1721.
Historians have liberally used "emperor" and "empire" anachronistically and out of its Roman and European context to describe any large state from the past or the present. Some titles are considered equivalent to "emperor" or are translated as "emperor". Examples of that are Roman emperors' titles,King of Kings,Khalifa,Huangdi,Cakravartin,Great Khan, Aztec monarchs' title, Inca monarchs' title, etc.[4] Sometimes this reference has even extended to non-monarchically ruled states and their spheres of influence, such as theAthenian Empire of the late 5th century BC, theAngevin Empire of thePlantagenets and theSoviet andAmerican "empires" of theCold War era. However, such "empires" did not need to be headed by an "emperor". "Empire" became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century.
For purposes of protocol, the size and scope of a kingdom or empire may determineprecedence in international diplomatic relations, but currently,precedence amongheads of state who are sovereigns—whether they be kings, queens, emperors, empresses, princes, princesses and presidents may be determined by the size and scope or time thateach one has been continuously in office. Outside the European context, "emperor" was the translation given to holders of titles who were accorded the same precedence as European emperors in diplomatic terms. In reciprocity, these rulers might accredit equal titles in their native languages to their European peers. Through centuries of international convention, this has become the dominant rule to identifying an emperor in the modern era.
WhenRepublican Rome turned into ade factomonarchy in the second half of the 1st century BC, at first there was no name for the title of the new type of monarch. Ancient Romans abhorred the nameRex ("king"), and it was critical to the political order to maintain the forms and pretenses of republican rule.Julius Caesar had beenDictator, an acknowledged and traditional office in Republican Rome. Caesar was not thefirst to hold it, but following his assassination the term was abhorred in Rome.[citation needed]
Augustus, considered the firstRoman emperor, established his hegemony by collecting on himself offices, titles, and honours of Republican Rome that had traditionally been distributed to different people, concentrating what had been distributed power in one man. One of these offices wasprinceps senatus, ("first man of the Senate") and became changed into Augustus' chief honorific,princeps civitatis ("first citizen") from which the modern English word and titleprince is descended. The first period of theRoman Empire, from 27 BC to AD 284, is called theprincipate for this reason. However, it was the informal descriptive ofImperator ("commander") that became the title increasingly favored by his successors. Previously bestowed on high officials and military commanders who hadimperium, Augustus reserved it exclusively to himself as the ultimate holder of allimperium. (Imperium is Latin for the authority to command, one of a various types of authority delineated in Roman political thought.)
Beginning with Augustus,Imperator appeared in the title of all Roman monarchs through the extinction of the Empire in 1453. After the reign of Augustus' immediate successorTiberius, being proclaimedimperator was transformed into the act of accession to thehead of state. Other honorifics used by the Roman emperors have also come to be synonyms for Emperor:
CaesarLatin:[ˈkae̯sar] (as, for example, inSuetonius'Twelve Caesars). This tradition continued in many languages: in German it became "Kaiser"; in certainSlavic languages it became "Tsar"; in Hungarian it became "Császár", and several more variants. The name derived fromJulius Caesar'scognomen "Caesar": this cognomen was adopted by all Roman emperors, exclusively by the ruling monarch after theJulio-Claudian dynasty had died out. In this tradition Julius Caesar is sometimes described as the first Caesar/emperor (following Suetonius). This is one of the most enduring titles: Caesar and its transliterations appeared in every year from the time ofCaesar Augustus to the modern era.
Augustus was thehonorific first bestowed on Emperor Augustus: on his death it became an official title of his successor and all Roman emperors after him added it to their name. Although it had a high symbolic value, something like "elevated" or "sublime", it was generally not used to indicate the office ofEmperor itself. Exceptions include the title of theAugustan History, a semi-historical collection of emperors' biographies of the 2nd and 3rd century. This title also proved very enduring: after the fall of the Roman Empire, the title would be incorporated into the style of theHoly Roman Emperor, a precedent set byCharlemagne, and its Greek translationSebastos continued to be used in theByzantine Empire until theFall of Constantinople in 1453, although it gradually lost its imperial exclusivity. Augustus had (by his last will) granted the feminine form of this honorific (Augusta) to his wife. Since there was no "title" of Empress(-consort) whatsoever, women of the reigning dynasty sought to be granted this honorific, as the highest attainable goal. Few were however granted the title, and it was certainly not a rule that all wives of reigning emperors would receive it.
Imperator (as, for example, inPliny the Elder'sNaturalis Historia). In theRoman Republic Imperator meant "(military) commander". In the late Republic, as in the early years of the new monarchy,Imperator was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and theRoman Senate after a great victory, roughly comparable tofield marshal (head or commander of the entire army). For example, in AD 15Germanicus was proclaimedImperator during the reign of his adoptive fatherTiberius. Soon thereafter "Imperator" became however a title reserved exclusively for the ruling monarch. This led to "Emperor" in English and, among other examples, "Empereur" in French and "Mbreti" in Albanian. The Latin feminine formImperatrix only developed after "Imperator" had taken on the connotation of "Emperor".
Autokrator (Αὐτοκράτωρ) orBasileus (βασιλεύς): although the Greeks used equivalents of "Caesar" (Καῖσαρ,Kaisar) and "Augustus" (in two forms: transliterated asΑὔγουστος,Augoustos or translated asΣεβαστός,Sebastos) these were rather used as part of the name of the emperor than as an indication of the office. Instead of developing a new name for the new type of monarchy, they usedαὐτοκράτωρ (autokratōr, only partly overlapping with the modern understanding of "autocrat") orβασιλεύς (basileus, until then the usual name for "sovereign").Autokratōr was essentially used as a translation of the LatinImperator in Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire, but also here there is only partial overlap between the meaning of the original Greek and Latin concepts. For the GreeksAutokratōr was not a military title, and was closer to the Latindictator concept ("the one with unlimited power"), before it came to mean Emperor.Basileus appears not to have been used exclusively in the meaning of "emperor" (and specifically, the Roman/Byzantine emperor) before the 7th century, although it was a standard informal designation of the emperor in the Greek-speaking East. The title was later applied by the rulers of various Eastern Orthodox countries claiming to be the successors of Rome/Byzantium, such asGeorgia,Bulgaria,Serbia,Russia.
ThePrincipate (27 BC – 284 AD) period was succeeded by what is known as theDominate (284 AD – 527 AD), during which EmperorDiocletian tried to put the empire on a more formal footing. Diocletian sought to address the challenges of the Empire's now vast geography and the instability caused by the informality of succession by the creation of co-emperors and junior emperors. At one point, there were as many as five sharers of theimperium (see:Tetrarchy). In 325 ADConstantine I defeated his rivals and restored single emperor rule, but following his death the empire was divided among his sons. For a time the concept was of one empire ruled by multiple emperors with varying territory under their control, however following the death ofTheodosius I the rule was divided between his two sons and increasingly became separate entities. The areas administered from Rome are referred to by historians theWestern Roman Empire and those under the immediate authority of Constantinople called theEastern Roman Empire or (after theBattle of Yarmouk in 636 AD) theLater Roman or Byzantine Empire. The subdivisions and co-emperor system were formally abolished byEmperor Zeno in 480 AD following the death ofJulius Nepos last Western Emperor and the ascension ofOdoacer as thede facto King of Italy in 476 AD.
UnderJustinian I, reigning in the 6th century, parts of Italy were for a few decades (re)conquered from theOstrogoths: thus, this famousmosaic, featuring the Byzantine emperor in the center, can be admired atRavenna.
Historians generally refer to the continuing Roman Empire in the east as theByzantine Empire afterByzantium, the original name of the town thatConstantine I would elevate to the Imperial capital asNew Rome in AD 330. (The city is more commonly calledConstantinople and is today namedIstanbul). Although the empire was again subdivided and a co-emperor sent to Italy at the end of the fourth century, the office became unitary again only 95 years later at the request of theRoman Senate and following the death ofJulius Nepos, last Western Emperor. This change was a recognition of the reality that little remained of Imperial authority in the areas that had been the Western Empire, with even Rome and Italy itself now ruled by the essentially autonomousOdoacer.
These Later Roman "Byzantine" emperors completed the transition from the idea of the emperor as a semi-republican official to the emperor as anabsolute monarch. Of particular note was the translation of the LatinImperator into the GreekBasileus, after EmperorHeraclius changed the official language of the empire from Latin to Greek in AD 620. Basileus, a title which had long been used forAlexander the Great was already in common usage as the Greek word for the Roman emperor, but its definition and sense was "King" in Greek, essentially equivalent with the LatinRex. Byzantine period emperors also used the Greek word "autokrator", meaning "one who rules himself", or "monarch", which was traditionally used by Greek writers to translate the Latindictator. Essentially, the Greek language did not incorporate the nuances of the Ancient Roman concepts that distinguishedimperium from other forms of political power.
In general usage, the Byzantine imperial title evolved from simply "emperor" (basileus) to "emperor of the Romans" (basileus tōn Rōmaiōn) in the 9th century, to "emperor and autocrat of the Romans" (basileus kai autokratōr tōn Rōmaiōn) in the 10th.[5] In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded.
One important distinction between the post Constantine I (reigned AD 306–337) emperors and their pagan predecessors wascesaropapism, the assertion that the emperor (or other head of state) is also the head of the Church. Although this principle was held by all emperors after Constantine, it met with increasing resistance and ultimately rejection by bishops in the west after the effective end of Imperial power there. This concept became a key element of the meaning of "emperor" in the Byzantine and Orthodox east, but went out of favor in the west with the rise ofRoman Catholicism.
The Byzantine Empire also produced three women who effectively governed the state: the EmpressIrene and the EmpressesZoe andTheodora.
In 1204 Constantinople fell to theVenetians and theFranks in theFourth Crusade. Following thesacking of the city, the conquerors declared a new "Empire of Romania", known to historians as theLatin Empire of Constantinople, installingBaldwin IX,Count of Flanders, as Emperor. However, Byzantine resistance to the new empire meant that it was in constant struggle to establish itself. Byzantine EmperorMichael VIII Palaiologos succeeded in recapturing Constantinople in 1261. ThePrincipality of Achaea, a vassal state the empire had created inMorea (Greece) intermittently continued to recognize the authority of the crusader emperors for another half century. Pretenders to the title continued among the European nobility until circa 1383.
With Constantinople occupied, claimants to the imperial succession styled themselves as emperor in the chief centers of resistance: TheLaskarid dynasty in theEmpire of Nicaea, theKomnenid dynasty in theEmpire of Trebizond and theDoukid dynasty in theDespotate of Epirus. In 1248, Epirus recognized the Nicaean emperors, who subsequently recaptured Constantinople in 1261. The Trapezuntine emperor formally submitted in Constantinople in 1281,[6] but frequently flouted convention by styling themselves emperor back in Trebizond thereafter.
Byzantium's close cultural and political interaction with its Balkan neighborsBulgaria andSerbia, and with Russia (Kievan Rus', then Muscovy) led to the adoption of Byzantine imperial traditions in all of these countries.
TheEmperor of the Romans' title was a reflection of thetranslatio imperii (transfer of rule) principle that regarded the Holy Roman emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of theWestern Roman Empire, despite the continued existence of theRoman Empire in the east, hence theproblem of two emperors.
From the time ofOtto the Great onward, much of the formerCarolingian kingdom ofEastern Francia became theHoly Roman Empire. Theprince-electors elected one of their peers asKing of the Romans andKing of Italy before being crowned by thePope. The emperor could also pursue the election of his heir (usually a son) as King, who would then succeed him after his death. This junior king then bore the title of King of the Romans. Although technically already ruling, after the election he would be crowned as emperor by the pope. The last emperor to be crowned by the pope wasCharles V; all emperors after him were technicallyemperors-elect, but were universally referred to asemperor.
The Holy Roman emperor was considered the first among those in power. He was also the first defender of Christianity. From 1452 to the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 (except in the years 1742 to 1745) only members of theHouse of Habsburg were Holy Roman emperors.Karl von Habsburg is currently the head of the House of Habsburg.[7][8][9]
The first Austrian Emperor was the last Holy Roman Emperor,Franz II. In the face of aggressions byNapoleon, Francis feared for the future of theHoly Roman Empire. He wished to maintain his and his family's Imperial status in the event that the Holy Roman Empire should be dissolved, as it indeed was in 1806 when an Austrian-led army suffered a humiliating defeat at theBattle of Austerlitz.[10] After which, the victorious Napoleon proceeded to dismantle the oldReich by severing a good portion from the empire and turning it into a separateConfederation of the Rhine. With the size of his imperial realm significantly reduced, Francis II,Holy Roman Emperor became Francis I,Emperor of Austria. The new imperial title may have sounded less prestigious than the old one, but Francis'dynasty continued to rule from Austria and a Habsburg monarch was still an emperor (Kaiser), and not just merely a king (König), in name. According to the historian Friedrich Heer, the Austrian Habsburg emperor remained an "auctoritas" of a special kind. He was "the grandson of the Caesars", he remained the patron of theHoly Church.[11]
The title lasted just a little over one century until 1918, but it was never clear what territory constituted the "Empire of Austria". When Francis took the title in 1804, the Habsburg lands as a whole were dubbed theKaisertum Österreich.Kaisertum might literally be translated as "emperordom" (on analogy with "kingdom") or "emperor-ship"; the term denotes specifically "the territory ruled by an emperor", and is thus somewhat more general thanReich, which in 1804 carried connotations of universal rule. Austria proper (as opposed to the complex of Habsburg lands as a whole) had been part of theArchduchy of Austria since the 15th century, and most of the other territories of the Empire had their own institutions and territorial history. There were some attempts at centralization, especially during the reign ofMaria Theresa and her sonJoseph II, Holy Roman Emperor. These efforts were finalized in the early 19th century. When theLands of the Crown of Saint Stephen (Hungary) were given self-government in 1867, the non-Hungarian portions were called the Empire of Austria. They were officially known as the "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in theImperial Council (Reichsrat)". The title of Emperor of Austria and the associated Empire were both abolished at the endWorld War I in 1918, whenGerman Austria became arepublic and the other kingdoms and lands represented in the Imperial Council established their independence or adhesion to other states.
In 913,Simeon I of Bulgaria was crowned Emperor (Tsar, originally more fully Tsesar,cěsar') of his own people by thePatriarch of Constantinople and Imperial regentNicholas Mystikos outside the Byzantine capital.[14] In its final expanded form, under theSecond Bulgarian Empire the title read "Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians and Greeks" (Цар и самодържец на всички българи и гърци,Car i samodăržec na vsički bălgari i gărci in the modern vernacular).[15] The Roman component in the Bulgarian imperial title indicated both rule over Greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans, however this component was never recognised by the Byzantine court.
Byzantine recognition of Simeon's imperial title was revoked by the succeeding Byzantine government. The decade 914–924 was spent indestructive warfare between Byzantium and Bulgaria over this and other matters of conflict. The Bulgarian monarch, who had further irritated his Byzantine counterpart by claiming the title "Emperor of the Romans" (basileus tōn Rōmaiōn), was eventually recognized, as "Emperor of the Bulgarians" (basileus tōn Boulgarōn) by the Byzantine EmperorRomanos I Lakapenos in 924.[16] Byzantine recognition of the imperial dignity of the Bulgarian monarch and the patriarchal dignity of theBulgarian patriarch was again confirmed at the conclusion of permanent peace and a Bulgarian-Byzantine dynastic marriage in 927. In the meantime, the Bulgarian imperial title may have been also tacitly confirmed by thepope, as claimed in later Bulgarian diplomatic correspondence.[17] The Bulgarian imperial title "tsar" was adopted by all Bulgarian monarchs up to the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule. Despite the attempt of PopeInnocent III to limit the Bulgarian monarch to the title of King (Rex),Kaloyan of Bulgaria considered himself an Emperor (Imperator) and his successorBoril of Bulgaria was specifically accused of improperly using the imperial title by his neighbor, theLatin EmperorHenry of Flanders.[18] Nevertheless, the Bulgarian imperial title was recognized by its neighbors and trading partners, including Byzantium, Hungary, Serbia, Venice, Genoa, Dubrovnik. 14th-century Bulgarian literary compositions saw the Bulgarian capital (Tarnovo) as a successor of Rome andConstantinople.[19]
After Bulgaria obtained full independence from theOttoman Empire in 1908, its monarch, who was previously styledKnyaz,Prince, took the traditional title ofTsar, this time translated asKing.Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is the former Tsar Simeon II of Bulgaria.[20]
The kings of theAncien Régime and theJuly Monarchy used the titleEmpereur de France in diplomatic correspondence and treaties with theOttoman emperor from at least 1673 onwards. The Ottomans insisted on this elevated style while refusing to recognize the Holy Roman emperors or the Russian tsars because of their rival claims of theRoman crown. In short, it was an indirect insult by the Ottomans to the HRE and the Russians. The French kings also used it forMorocco (1682) andPersia (1715).
One of the most famous Imperial coronation ceremonies was that of Napoleon, crowning himself Emperor in the presence ofPope Pius VII (who had blessed theregalia), at theNotre Dame Cathedral in Paris. The painting byDavid commemorating the event is equally famous: the gothic cathedral restyledstyle Empire, supervised by themother of the Emperor on the balcony (a fictional addition, while she had not been present at the ceremony), the pope positioned near the altar, Napoleon proceeds to crown his then wife,Joséphine de Beauharnais as Empress.
Napoleon Bonaparte, who was already First Consul of the French Republic (Premier Consul de la République française) for life, declared himselfEmperor of the French (Empereur des Français) on 18 May 1804, thus creating theFrench Empire (Empire Français).[21]
Napoleon relinquished the title of Emperor of the French on 6 April and again on 11 April 1814. Napoleon's infant son,Napoleon II, was recognized by the Council of Peers, as Emperor from the moment of his father's abdication, and therefore reigned (as opposed to ruled) as Emperor for fifteen days, 22 June to 7 July 1815.
Since 3 May 1814, the Sovereign Principality ofElba was created as a miniature non-hereditary monarchy under the exiled French Emperor Napoleon I. According to theTreaty of Fontainebleau (1814), Napoleon I was allowed to enjoy the imperial title for life. The islands werenot restyled an empire.
On 26 February 1815, Napoleon abandoned Elba for France, reviving the French Empire for aHundred Days; the Allies declared an end to Napoleon's sovereignty over Elba on 25 March 1815, and on 31 March 1815 Elba was ceded to the restoredGrand Duchy of Tuscany by the Congress of Vienna. After his final defeat, Napoleon was treated as a general by the British authorities during his second exile to Atlantic Isle ofSt. Helena. His title was a matter of dispute with the governor of St Helena, who insisted on addressing him as "General Bonaparte", despite the "historical reality that he had been an emperor" and therefore retained the title.[22][23][24]
Napoleon I's nephew,Napoleon III, resurrected the title of emperor on 2 December 1852, after establishing theSecond French Empire in a presidentialcoup, subsequently approved by a plebiscite.[25] His reign was marked by large scale public works, the development of social policy, and the extension of France's influence throughout the world. During his reign, he also set about creating theSecond Mexican Empire (headed by his choice ofMaximilian I of Mexico, a member of theHouse of Habsburg), to regain France's hold in the Americas and to achieve greatness for the 'Latin' race.[26] Napoleon III was deposed on 4 September 1870, after France's defeat in theFranco-Prussian War. TheThird Republic followed and after the death of his son Napoleon (IV), in 1879 during the Zulu War, the Bonapartist movement split, and the Third Republic was to last until 1940.
The title was not exactly hereditary but self-proclaimed by those who had, wholly or partially, united the Christian northern part of theIberian Peninsula, often at the expense of killing rival siblings. The popes and Holy Roman emperors protested at the usage of the imperial title as a usurpation of leadership in western Christendom. After Alfonso VII's death in 1157 the title was abandoned, and the kings who used it are not commonly mentioned as having been "emperors", in Spanish or other historiography.
After the independence and proclamation of theEmpire of Brazil from theKingdom of Portugal byPrince Pedro, who became Emperor, in 1822 his father, KingJohn VI of Portugal, briefly held the honorific style of TitularEmperor of Brazil and the treatment ofHis Imperial and Royal Majesty under the 1825Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, by which Portugal recognized the independence of Brazil. The style of Titular Emperor was a life title, and became extinct upon the holder's demise. John VI held the imperial title for a few months only, from the ratification of the Treaty in November 1825 until his death in March 1826. During those months, however, as John's imperial title was purely honorific while his son, Pedro I, remained the sole monarch of the Brazilian Empire.Duarte Pio is the current head of theHouse of Braganza.
In the late 3rd century, by the end of the epoch of thebarracks emperors in Rome, there were twoBritannic emperors, reigning for about a decade. After theend of Roman rule in Britain, the ImperatorCunedda forged theKingdom of Gwynedd in northern Wales, but all his successors were titled kings and princes.
There was no consistent title for the king of England before 1066, and monarchs chose to style themselves as they pleased. Imperial titles were used inconsistently, beginning withAthelstan in 930 and ended with theNorman conquest of England.Empress Matilda (1102–1167) is the only English monarch commonly referred to as "emperor" or "empress", but she acquired her title through her marriage toHenry V, Holy Roman Emperor.
During the rule ofHenry VIII theStatute in Restraint of Appeals declared that 'this realm of England is an Empire...governed by one Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of theimperial Crown of the same'. This was in the context of the divorce ofCatherine of Aragon and theEnglish Reformation, to emphasize that England had never accepted the quasi-imperial claims of the papacy. Hence England and, by extension its modern successor state, theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, is according to English law an Empire ruled by a King endowed with the imperial dignity. However, this has not led to the creation of thetitle of Emperor in England, nor inGreat Britain, nor in the United Kingdom.
In 1801,George III rejected the title of Emperor when offered. The only period when British monarchs held the title ofEmperor in a dynastic succession started when the titleEmpress of India was created forQueen Victoria.[28] The government led byPrime MinisterBenjamin Disraeli, conferred the additional title upon her by an Act of Parliament, reputedly to assuage the monarch's irritation at being, as a mere Queen, notionally inferior to the emperors of Russia, Germany, and Austria. That included her own daughter (Princess Victoria, who was the wife of thereigning German Emperor). Hence, "Queen Victoria felt handicapped in the battle of protocol by not being an Empress herself".[29] The Indian Imperial designation was also formally justified as the expression of Britain succeeding the formerMughal Emperor assuzerain over hundreds ofprincely states. TheIndian Independence Act 1947 provided for the abolition of the use of the title "Emperor of India" by theBritish monarch, but this was not executed byKing George VI until aroyal proclamation on 22 June 1948. Despite this, George VI continued as king of India until 1950 and as king of Pakistan until his death in 1952.
Under the guise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848 toPrussian prime ministerOtto von Bismarck's authoritarianRealpolitik. Bismarck wanted to unify the rival German states to achieve his aim of a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. Three wars led to military successes and helped to convince German people to do this: theSecond war of Schleswig against Denmark in 1864, theAustro-Prussian War againstAustria in 1866, and theFranco-Prussian War against theSecond French Empire in 1870–71. During theSiege of Paris in 1871, theNorth German Confederation, supported by its allies fromsouthern Germany, formed theGerman Empire with the proclamation of the Prussian kingWilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at thePalace of Versailles,[30] to the humiliation of the French, who ceased to resist only days later.
After his death he was succeeded by his sonFrederick III who was only emperor for 99 days. In the same year his sonWilhelm II became the third emperor within a year. He was the last German emperor. After the empire's defeat in World War I the empire, called theGerman Reich, had a president as head of state instead of an emperor. The use of the wordReich was abandoned followingWorld War II.
In 1472, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor,Sophia Palaiologina, marriedIvan III, grand prince of Moscow, who began championing the idea of Russia being the successor to the Byzantine Empire. This idea was represented more emphatically in the composition the monk Filofej addressed to their sonVasili III. In 1480, after ending Muscovy's dependence on its overlords of theGreat Horde, Ivan III began the usage of the titlesTsar and Autocrat (samoderzhets). His insistence on recognition as such by the emperor of theHoly Roman Empire since 1489 resulted in the granting of this recognition in 1514 by EmperorMaximilian I to Vasili III. His sonIvan IV emphatically crowned himselfTsar of Russia on 16 January 1547. The word "Tsar" derives from LatinCaesar, but this title was used in Russia as equivalent to "King"; the error occurred when medieval Russian clerics referred to the biblical Jewish kings with the same title that was used to designate Roman and Byzantine rulers — "Caesar".
On 31 October 1721,Peter I was proclaimed Emperor by theGoverning Senate. The title used was Latin "Imperator", which is a westernizing form equivalent to the traditional Slavic title "Tsar". He based his claim partially upon a letter discovered in 1717 written in 1514 from Maximilian I to Vasili III, in which the Holy Roman Emperor used the term in referring to Vasili.
A formal address to the ruling Russian monarch adopted thereafter was 'Your Imperial Majesty'. Thecrown prince was addressed as 'Your Imperial Highness'.
The title has not been used in Russia since theabdication of EmperorNicholas II on 15 March 1917.
In 1345, the Serbian KingStefan Uroš IV Dušan proclaimed himself Emperor (Tsar) and was crowned as such atSkopje onEaster 1346 by the newly createdSerbian Patriarch, and by thePatriarch of Bulgaria and the autocephalousArchbishop of Ohrid. His imperial title was recognized by the Bulgarian Empire and various other neighbors and trading partners but not by the Byzantine Empire. In its final standardized form, the Serbian imperial title read "Emperor of Serbs and Greeks" (цар Срба и Грка,car Srba i Grka in modern Serbian). It was only employed by two monarchs in Serbia, Stefan Uroš IV Dušan and his son Stefan Uroš V, becoming extinct after the latter's death in 1371. A half-brother of Dušan,Simeon Uroš, and then his sonJovan Uroš, claimed the same title, until the latter's abdication in 1373, while ruling as dynasts inThessaly. The "Greek" component in the Serbian imperial title indicates both rule over Greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans.[31] A renegade Hungarian-Serb commander,Jovan Nenad, who claimed to be a descendant of Serbian and Byzantine rulers, styled himself Emperor.
The Aztec and Inca traditions are unrelated to one another. Both were conquered under the reign of KingCharles I of Spain who was simultaneously emperor-elect of theHoly Roman Empire during the fall of the Aztecs and fully emperor during the fall of the Incas. Incidentally by being king of Spain, he was also Roman (Byzantine) emperor in pretence throughAndreas Palaiologos. The translations of their titles were provided by the Spanish.
The onlypre-Columbian North American rulers to be commonly called emperors were theHuey Tlatoani of the Mexica city-states ofTenochtitlan,Tlacopan andTexcoco, which along with their allies and tributaries are popularly known as theAztec Empire (1375–1521).Tlatoani is a generic Nahuatl word for "speaker"; however, most English translators use "king" for their translation, thus renderinghuey tlatoani asgreat king oremperor.[32]
The Triple Alliance was anelected monarchy chosen by the elite. The emperors of Tenochtitlan and Texcoco were nominally equals, each receiving two-fifths of tribute from the vassal kingdoms, whereas the emperor of Tlacopan was a junior member and only received one-fifth of the tribute,[33] due to the fact that Tlacopan was a newcomer to the alliance. Despite the nominal equality, Tenochtitlan eventually assumed ade facto dominant role in the Empire, to the point that even the emperors of Tlacopan and Texcoco would acknowledge Tenochtitlan's effective supremacy. SpanishconquistadorHernán Cortés executed EmperorCuauhtémoc and installed puppet rulers who became vassals for Spain.
The only pre-Columbian South American rulers to be commonly called emperors were theSapa Inca of theInca Empire (1438–1533). Spanish conquistadorFrancisco Pizarro, conquered the Inca for Spain, killed EmperorAtahualpa, and installed puppets as well. Atahualpa may actually be considered a usurper as he had achieved power bykilling his half-brother and he did not perform the required coronation with the imperial crownmascaipacha by theHuillaq Uma (high priest).
WhenNapoleon I ordered the invasion of Portugal in 1807 because it refused to join theContinental System, the PortugueseBraganzas moved their capital toRio de Janeiro to avoid the fate of theSpanish Bourbons (Napoleon I arrested them and made his brotherJoseph king). When the French generalJean-Andoche Junot arrived inLisbon, the Portuguese fleet had already left with all the local elite.
In 1808, under a British naval escort, the fleet arrived in Brazil. Later, in 1815, the Portuguese Prince Regent (since 1816King João VI) proclaimed theUnited Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, as a union of three kingdoms, lifting Brazil from its colonial status.
After the fall of Napoleon I and theLiberal revolution in Portugal, the Portuguese royal family returned to Europe (1821). Prince Pedro of Braganza (King João's older son) stayed in South America acting as regent of the local kingdom, but, two years later in 1822, he proclaimed himselfPedro I, firstEmperor of Brazil. He did, however, recognize his father, João VI, asTitular Emperor of Brazil —a purely honorific title—until João VI's death in 1826.
Haiti was declared an empire by its ruler,Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who made himself Jacques I, on 20 May 1805. He was assassinated the next year.[34] Haiti again became an empire from 1849 to 1859 underFaustin Soulouque.
In Mexico, theFirst Mexican Empire was the first of two empires created. After thedeclaration of independence on 15 September 1821, it was the intention of the Mexican parliament to establish a commonwealth whereby the king of Spain,Ferdinand VII, would also beEmperor of Mexico, but in which both countries were to be governed by separate laws and with their own legislative offices. Should the king refuse the position, the law provided for a member of theHouse of Bourbon to accede to the Mexican throne.
Ferdinand VII, however, did not recognize the independence and said that Spain would not allow any other European prince to take the throne of Mexico. By request of Parliament, the president of the regencyAgustín de Iturbide was proclaimed emperor of Mexico on 12 July 1822 asAgustín I. Agustín de Iturbide was the general who helped secure Mexican independence from Spanish rule, but was overthrown by thePlan of Casa Mata.
In 1863, the invading French, underNapoleon III (see above), in alliance with Mexican conservatives andnobility, helped create theSecond Mexican Empire, and invited Archduke Maximilian, of theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine, younger brother of the Austrian EmperorFranz Josef I, to become emperorMaximilian I of Mexico. The childless Maximilian and his consortEmpress Carlota of Mexico, daughter ofLeopold I of Belgium, adopted Agustín's grandsons Agustin and Salvador as his heirs to bolster his claim to the throne of Mexico. Maximilian and Carlota madeChapultepec Castle their home, which has been the only palace in North America to house sovereigns.[citation needed] After the withdrawal of French protection in 1867, Maximilian was captured and executed by the liberal forces ofBenito Juárez.[35]
This empire led to French influence in the Mexican culture and alsoimmigration from France, Belgium, and Switzerland to Mexico. Maximilian's closest living agnatic relative isKarl von Habsburg, the head of the House of Habsburg.
The term "king of kings" is used for the "emperor".[4] The titleKing of Kings takes various forms depending on the language, and was used not only in Iran but also in countries surrounding Iran.
Persian monarchs took the imperial title ofshahenshah (king of kings) to show superiority towards subordinate kings (shah).Shahanshah is usually translated asking of kings or simplyking for ancient rulers of theAchaemenid,Arsacid, andSassanid dynasties, and often shortened toshah for rulers since theSafavid dynasty in the 16th century. Iranian rulers were typically regarded in the West as emperors.
InPersia, from the time ofDarius the Great, Persian rulers used the title "King of Kings" (Shahanshah in Persian) since they had dominion over peoples from the borders of India to the borders of Greece and Egypt.[40] The Sassanid monarchs used the title King of kings of Iranians andnon-Iranians to denote their rule over non-Iranian lands. The lastshahanshah (Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) was ousted in 1979 following theIranian Revolution.
After theOttoman capture of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman sultans began to style themselvesKaysar-i Rum (Ceaser of the Romans) as they asserted themselves to be the heirs to the Roman Empire by right of conquest. The title was of such importance to them that it led them to eliminate the various Byzantine successor states – and therefore rival claimants – over the next eight years. Though the term "emperor" was rarely used by Westerners of theOttoman sultan, it was generally accepted by Westerners that he had imperial status.
In theVedic period, there was afederalimperial system called theSamrajya system and its emperor's title wasSamrat (hi:सम्राट्).[43] Those monarchs, who could bring under subjection many rulers, claimed the title ofSamrat.[44]
The actual condition ofSamrat, which is an objective term, and the theoretical status ofChakravarti, which is a poetical concept, were connected in point of psychology.[45]
From the 14th century until the 19th century the Indian subcontinent was dominated by predominantly Muslim rulers like theMughals in the second unified Indian subcontinent,whose rulers used the titleShahenshah andPadishah (or Badshah) ofHindustan.
From 1270 theSolomonic dynasty ofEthiopia used the titleNəgusä Nägäst, literally "King of Kings". The use of theking of kings style began a millennium earlier in this region, however, with the title being used by the kings ofAksum, beginning withSembrouthes in the 3rd century.
Another title used by this dynasty wasItegue Zetopia.Itegue translates as Empress, and was used by the only reigning empress,Zewditu, along with the official titleNegiste Negest ("Queen of Kings").
In 1936, the Italian kingVictor Emmanuel III claimed the title of emperor after Ethiopia was occupied by Italy during theSecond Italo-Abyssinian War. After the defeat of the Italians by the British and the Ethiopians in 1941,Haile Selassie was restored to the throne but Victor Emmanuel did not relinquish his claim until 1943, even though he had no standing to the title.[58]
In 1976, PresidentJean-Bédel Bokassa of theCentral African Republic, proclaimed the country to be an autocraticCentral African Empire, and made himself Emperor as Bokassa I. The expenses of his coronation ceremony actually bankrupted the country. He was overthrown three years later and the republic was restored.[59]
皇帝 is the title of emperors in East Asia. An emperor is calledHuángdì in Chinese,Hwangje in Korean,Hoàng đế in Vietnamese, andKōtei in Japanese, but these are all just their respective pronunciations of the Chinese character 皇帝. However, the Japanese call only their emperors with the special title ofTennō (天皇).
The rulers of China and (once Westerners became aware of the role) Japan were always accepted in the West as emperors, and referred to as such. The claims of other East Asian monarchies to the title may have been accepted for diplomatic purposes, but it was not necessarily used in more general contexts.
TheEast Asian tradition is different from the Roman tradition, having arisen separately. What links them together is the use of the Chinese logographs 皇 (huáng) and 帝 (dì) which together or individually are imperial. Because of the cultural influence of China, China's neighbors adopted these titles or had their native titles conform inhanzi. Anyone who spoke to the emperor was to address the emperor as bìxià (陛下, lit. the "Bottom of the Steps"), corresponding to theImperial Majesty"; shèngshàng (聖上, lit. Holy Highness); or wànsuì (万岁, lit. "You, of Ten Thousand Years").
In 221 BC,Ying Zheng, who wasking ofQin at the time, proclaimed himselfShi Huangdi (始皇帝), which translates as "first emperor".Huangdi is composed ofhuang ("august one", 皇) anddi ("sage-king", 帝), and referred to legendary/mythologicalsage-emperors living several millennia earlier, of which three werehuang and five weredi. Thus Ying Zheng becameQin Shi Huang, abolishing the system where thehuang/di titles were reserved to dead and/or mythological rulers. Since then, the title "king" became a lower ranked title, and later divided into two grades. Although not as popular, the title 王wang (king or prince) was still used by many monarchs and dynasties in China up to theTaipings in the 19th century. 王 is pronouncedvương in Vietnamese,ō in Japanese, andwang in Korean.
The imperial title continued in China until theQing dynasty was overthrown in 1912. The title was briefly revived from 12 December 1915 to 22 March 1916 by PresidentYuan Shikai and again in early July 1917 when GeneralZhang Xun attempted to restore last Qing emperorPuyi to the throne. Puyi retained the title and attributes of a foreign emperor, as a personal status, until 1924. After the Japanese occupiedManchuria in 1931, they proclaimed it to be the Empire ofManchukuo, and Puyi became emperor of Manchukuo. This empire ceased to exist when it was occupied by the SovietRed Army in 1945.[60]
In general, an emperor would have one empress (Huanghou, 皇后) at one time, although posthumous entitlement to empress for aconcubine was not uncommon. The earliest known usage ofhuanghou was in theHan dynasty. The emperor would generally select the empress from hisconcubines. In subsequent dynasties, when the distinction between wife and concubine became more accentuated, thecrown prince would have chosen an empress-designate before his reign.Imperial China produced only one reigning empress,Wu Zetian, and she used the same Chinese title as an emperor (Huangdi, 皇帝). Wu Zetian then reigned for about 15 years (AD 690–705).
Under the tributary system of China, monarchs of Korea and Vietnam sometimes called themselvesemperor in their country. They introduced themselves asking for China and other countries (Emperor at home, king abroad). In Japan,Ashikaga Yoshimitsu ashogun was granted title ofKing of Japan for trade by the Ming emperor. However, the Shogun was a subject of the Japanese emperor. It was contrary to rules of tributary system, but the Ming emperor connived it for the purpose of suppressing theWokou.
Emperor Shōwa, the last Japanese emperor having ruled with prerogative powers, combined with assumption of divinity (photographed 1926 on his ascendancy to theChrysanthemum Throne)
The earliest emperor recorded inKojiki andNihon Shoki isEmperor Jimmu, who is said to be a descendant ofAmaterasu's grandson Ninigi who descended from Heaven (Tenson kōrin). If one believes what is written inNihon Shoki, the emperors have an unbroken direct male lineage that goes back more than 2,600 years.In ancient Japan, the earliest titles for the sovereign were either ヤマト大王/大君 (yamatoōkimi, Grand King of Yamato), 倭王/倭国王 (waō/wakokuō, King of Wa, used externally), or 治天下大王 (amenoshita shiroshimesuōkimi, Grand King who rules all under heaven, used internally).
In 607,Empress Suiko sent a diplomatic document to China, which she wrote "the emperor of the land of the rising sun (日出處天子) sends a document to the emperor of the land of the setting sun (日沒處天子)" and began to use the title emperor externally.[61] As early as the 7th century, the word 天皇 (which can be read either assumera no mikoto, divine order, or astennō, Heavenly Emperor, the latter being derived from a Tang Chinese term referring to the Pole star around which all other stars revolve) began to be used. The earliest use of this term is found on a wooden slat, ormokkan, unearthed in Asuka-mura, Nara Prefecture in 1998. The slat dated back to the reign ofEmperor Tenmu andEmpress Jitō.[62] The reading 'Tennō' has become the standard title for the Japanese sovereign up to the present age. The term 帝 (mikado, Emperor) is also found in literary sources.
In the Japanese language, the wordtennō is restricted to Japan's own monarch;kōtei (皇帝) is usually used for foreign emperors. Historically,retired emperors often kept power over a child-emperor as de facto regent. For a long time, ashōgun (military aristocratic class) or animperial regent wielded actual political power.[63] In fact, through much of Japanese history, the emperor has been little more than a figurehead. TheMeiji Restoration restored practical abilities and the political system underEmperor Meiji.[64] The last shogunTokugawa Yoshinobu resigned in 1868.
After World War II, all claims of divinity were dropped (seeNingen-sengen). The Diet acquired all prerogative powers of the Crown, reverting the latter to a ceremonial role.[65] By 1979, after the short-livedCentral African Empire (1976–1979),Emperor Shōwa was the only monarch in the world with the title emperor.[failed verification]
As of the early 21st century, Japan's succession law prohibits a female from ascending the throne. With the birth of adaughter as the first child of the then-Crown PrinceNaruhito, Japanconsidered abandoning that rule. However, shortly after the announcement thatPrincess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, the proposal to alter theImperial Household Law was suspended by then-Prime MinisterJunichiro Koizumi. On 3 January 2007, as the child turned out to be ason, Prime MinisterShinzō Abe announced that he would drop the proposal.[66]
Emperor Naruhito is the 126th monarch according to Japan'straditional order of succession. The second and third in line of succession areFumihito, Prince Akishino andPrince Hisahito. Historically, Japan has had eight reigning empresses who used the genderless titleTennō, rather than the female consort titlekōgō (皇后) orchūgū (中宮). There is ongoing discussion of theJapanese Imperial succession controversy. Although current Japanese law prohibits female succession, all Japanese emperors claim to trace their lineage toAmaterasu, the Sun Goddess of theShintōreligion. Thus, the emperor is thought to be the highest authority of the Shinto religion, and one of his duties is to perform Shinto rituals for the people of Japan.
Some rulers ofGoguryeo (37 BC–AD 668) used the title ofTaewang (태왕;太王), literally translated as "Greatest King". The title ofTaewang was also used by some rulers ofSilla (57 BC–AD 935), includingBeopheung andJinheung.
The rulers ofBalhae (698–926) internally called themselvesSeongwang (성왕;聖王; lit. "Holy King").[67]
The rulers ofGoryeo (918–1392) used the titles of emperor andSon of Heaven of the East of the Ocean (해동천자;海東天子). Goryeo's imperial system ended in 1270 with capitulation to theMongol Empire.[68]
In 1897,Gojong, the king of Joseon, proclaimed the founding of theKorean Empire (1897–1910), becoming theemperor of Korea. He declared theera name of "Gwangmu" (광무;光武), meaning "Bright and Martial". The Korean Empire lasted until 1910, when it was annexed by theEmpire of Japan.
Genghis Khan was the founder and firstGreat Khan or Emperor of the largest land empire in history, theMongol Empire. His reign as emperor lasted from 1206 to 1227 and he is considered by some to be the greatest conqueror of all time.[69]
The titleKhagan (khan of khans or grand khan) was held byGenghis Khan, founder of theMongol Empire in 1206; he also formally took the Chinese titlehuangdi, as "Genghis Emperor" (成吉思皇帝;Chéngjísī Huángdì ). Only the Khagans from Genghis Khan to the fall of theYuan dynasty in 1368 are normally referred to as emperors in English.
Ngô Quyền, the first ruler ofĐại Việt as an independent state, used the titleVương (王,King). However, after the death of Ngô Quyền, the country immersed in a civil war known asAnarchy of the 12 Warlords that lasted for over 20 years. In the end,Đinh Bộ Lĩnh unified the country after defeating all the warlords and became the first ruler of Đại Việt to use the titleHoàng Đế (皇帝,Emperor) in 968. Succeeding rulers in Vietnam then continued to use this Emperor title until 1806 when this title was stopped being used for a century.[71]
Đinh Bộ Lĩnh was not the first to claim the title ofHoàng Đế (皇帝,Emperor). Before him,Lý Bí andMai Thúc Loan also claimed this title. However, their rules were short-lived.[citation needed]
The Vietnamese emperors also gave this title to their ancestors who were lords or influential figures in the previous dynasty, as did the Chinese emperors. This practice was one of the many indications that Vietnam considered itself an equal to China which remained intact up to the twentieth century.[72]
In 1802 the newly establishedNguyễn dynasty requested canonization from the ChineseJiaqing Emperor and received the titleQuốc Vương (國王,King of a State) and the name of the country asViệt Nam (越南) insteadĐại Việt (大越). To avoid unnecessary armed conflicts, the Vietnamese rulers accepted this in diplomatic relation andused the title Emperor only domestically. However, Vietnamese rulers never accepted the vassalage relationship with China and always refused to come to Chinese courts to pay homage to Chinese rulers (a sign of vassalage acceptance). China waged a number of wars against Vietnam throughout history, and after each failure, settled for the tributary relationship. TheYuan dynasty underKublai Khan waged three wars against Vietnam to force it into a vassalage relationship but after successive failures, Kublai Khan's successor,Temür Khan, finally settled for a tributary relationship with Vietnam. Vietnam sent tributary missions to China once in three years (with some periods of disruptions) until the 19th century,Sino-French War France replaced China in control of northern Vietnam.[73]
The emperors of the last dynasty of Vietnam continued to hold this title until the French conquered Vietnam. The emperor, however, was then a puppet figure only and could easily be disposed of by the French for more pro-France figure. Japan took Vietnam from France and theAxis-occupied Vietnam was declared anempire by the Japanese in March 1945. The line of emperors came to an end withBảo Đại, who was deposed after the war, although he later served as head of state ofSouth Vietnam from 1949 to 1955.[74]
Popes bear the titlePontifex maximus, which was one of the titles of the Roman emperors, soGuglielmo Ferrero said that the Pope is a direct successor to the Roman Emperor.[75]
In East Asia, China, Japan, and South Korea, the title Pope is translated as教皇, literally "emperor of the religion".[76][77][78]
^Before the emergence of the modern country of Spain (beginning with the union ofCastile andAragon in 1492), the Latin wordHispania, in any of theIberian Romance languages, either in singular or plural forms (in English: Spain or Spains), was used to refer to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula, and not exclusively, as in modern usage, to the country of Spain, thus excluding Portugal.
^Agostino never saw the Sultan, but probably did see and sketch the helmet in Venice.
^Uyama, Takuei (23 October 2019)."天皇はなぜ「王（キング）」ではなく「皇帝（エンペラー）」なのか" [The Title of the Monarch of Japan: not the "King" but the "Emperor"] (in Japanese). Retrieved23 October 2019.
^Thapar, Romila (2004).Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California Press. p. 366.ISBN978-0-520-24225-8.The unobtrusive titles used by the early Chola kings were replaced with high-sounding ones, such aschakravartigal (emperor, the equivalent of the northernchakravartin).
^Although the Emperor of Japan is classified as constitutional monarch among political scientists, the current constitution of Japan defines him only as 'a symbol of the nation' and no subsequent legislation states his status as theHead of state or equates the Crown synonymously with any government establishment.
^Tuyet Nhung Tran, Anthony J. S. Reid (2006),Việt Nam Borderless Histories, Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, p. 67,ISBN978-0-299-21770-9
Fine, J. V. A. Jr.,The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, Ann Arbor, 1987.
Kaimakamova, M., "Turnovo – New Constantinople: The Third Rome in the Fourteench-Century Bulgarian Translation of Constantine Manasses' Synopsis Chronike,"The Medieval Chronicle 4 (2006) 91–104.online
Mladjov, I. S. R., "Between Byzantium and Rome: Bulgaria in the aftermath of the Photian Schism,"Byzantine Studies/Études Byzantines 4 (n.s.) (1999) 173–181.online
Mladjov, I. S. R., "The Crown and the Veil: Titles, Spiritual Kinship, and Diplomacy in Tenth-Century Bulgaro-Byzantine Relations,"History Compass 13 (2015) 171–183.online
Petkov, K.,The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century, Leiden, 2008.
Prinzing, G., "Der Brief Kaiser Heinrichs von Konstantinopel vom 13. Januar 1212,"Byzantion 43 (1973) 395–431.online
.svg)
_(cropped).svg)
%2c_formerly_attributed_to_Titian_(Alte_Pinakothek%2c_Munich).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
