Emigration is the act of leaving a resident country or place of residence[1] with the intent to settle elsewhere (to permanently leave a country).[2] Conversely, immigration describes the movement of people into one country from another (to permanently move to a country).[3] A migrantemigrates from their old country, andimmigrates to their new country. Thus, both emigration and immigration describemigration, but from different countries' perspectives.
Japanese government poster in the early 20th century promoting emigration to South America, with Brazil highlighted
Demographers examinepush and pull factors for people to be pushed out of one place and attracted to another. There can be a desire to escape negative circumstances such as shortages of land or jobs, or unfair treatment. People can be pulled to the opportunities available elsewhere. Fleeing from oppressive conditions, being arefugee andseeking asylum to getrefugee status in a foreign country, may lead to permanent emigration.
Forced displacement refers to groups that are forced to abandon their native country, such as by enforcedpopulation transfer or the threat ofethnic cleansing. Refugees and asylum seekers in this sense are the most marginalized extreme cases of migration,[4] facing multiple hurdles in their journey and efforts to integrate into the new settings.[5] Scholars in this sense have called for cross-sector engagement from businesses, non-governmental organizations, educational institutions, and other stakeholders within the receiving communities.[6][7]
Patterns of emigration have been shaped by numerous economic, social, and political changes throughout the world in the last few hundred years. For instance, millions of individuals fled poverty, violence, and political turmoil in Europe to settle in the Americas and Oceania during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Likewise, millions left South China in theChinese diaspora during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Poster showing a cross-section of theCunard Line's emigrant linerRMSAquitania, launched in 1913.
Demographers distinguish factors at the origin that push people out, versus those at the destination that pull them in.[8] Motives to migrate can be either incentives attracting people away, known aspull factors, or circumstances encouraging a person to leave. Diversity of push and pull factors inform management scholarship in their efforts to understand migrant movement.[9][4]
Some scholars criticize the "push-pull" approach to understandinginternational migration.[10] Regarding lists of positive or negative factors about a place, Jose C. Moya writes "one could easily compile similar lists for periods and places where no migration took place."[11]
Unlike immigration, in many countries few if any records have been recorded[a] or maintained in regard to persons leaving a country either on a temporary or permanent basis. Therefore, estimates on emigration must be derived from secondary sources such as immigration records of the receiving country or records from other administrative agencies.[14]
The rate of emigration has continued to grow, reaching 280 million in 2017.[15]
In Armenia, for example, the migration is calculated by counting people arriving or leaving the country via airplane, train, railway or other means of transportation. Here, the emigration index is high: 1.5% of population leaves the country annually.[16] In fact, it is one of the countries, where emigration has become a part of culture since 20th century. For example, between 1990 and 2005 approximately 700,000–1,300,000 Armenians left the country. The highly rising numbers of emigration are a direct response to socio-political and economic areas of the country. The internal migration (migration in country) is big (28.7%), while international migration is 71.3% of the total migration by people aging 15 and above. It is important to understand the reasons for both types of migration and the availability of the options. For example, in Armenia, everything is localized in the capital city Yerevan, thus, internal migration is from the villages and small cities to the biggest city of the country. The reason for the migration can be work or study. International migration follows the same reasoning of migration: work or study. The main destinations for it are Russia, France and US.[17]
Some countries restrict the ability of their citizens to emigrate to other countries. After 1668, theQing Emperor banned Han Chinese migration toManchuria. In 1681, the emperor ordered construction of theWillow Palisade, a barrier beyond which the Chinese were prohibited from encroaching on Manchu and Mongol lands.[18]
TheSoviet Socialist Republics of the laterSoviet Union began such restrictions in 1918, with laws and borders tightening until even illegal emigration was nearly impossible by 1928.[19] To strengthen this, they set upinternal passport controls and individual cityPropiska ("place of residence") permits, along with internal freedom of movement restrictions often called the101st kilometre, rules which greatly restricted mobility within even small areas.[20]
At the end ofWorld War II in 1945, theSoviet Union occupied several Central European countries, together called theEastern Bloc, with the majority of those living in the newly acquired areas aspiring to independence and wanted the Soviets to leave.[21] Before 1950, over 15 million people emigrated from the Soviet-occupied eastern European countries and immigrated intothe west in the five years immediately followingWorld War II.[22] By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling national movement was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc.[23] Restrictions implemented in the Eastern Bloc stopped most east–west migration, with only 13.3 million migrations westward between 1950 and 1990.[24] However, hundreds of thousands ofEast Germans annually immigrated toWest Germany through a "loophole" in the system that existed between East and WestBerlin, where the four occupying World War II powers governed movement.[25] The emigration resulted in massive "brain drain" fromEast Germany toWest Germany of younger educated professionals, such that nearly 20% of East Germany's population had migrated to West Germany by 1961.[26] In 1961, East Germany erected a barbed-wire barrier that would eventually be expanded through construction into theBerlin Wall, effectively closing the loophole.[27] In 1989, theBerlin Wall fell, followed byGerman reunification and within two years thedissolution of the Soviet Union.
^Castles, Stephen (2014).The age of migration : international population movements in the modern world. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 20–48.ISBN9780230355767.OCLC915478576.
^Moya, J. C. (1998). Cousins and strangers. Spanish immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850–1930. Berkeley, University of California Press. p.14
^Kleinschmidt, Harald,Migration, Regional Integration and Human Security: The Formation and Maintenance of Transnational Spaces, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006,ISBN0-7546-4646-7, page 110
Look upemigration in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Böcker, Anita (1998),Regulation of Migration: International Experiences, Het Spinhuis,ISBN978-90-5589-095-8
Dale, Gareth (2005),Popular Protest in East Germany, 1945-1989: Judgements on the Street, Routledge,ISBN978-0-7146-5408-9
Dowty, Alan (1987),Closed Borders: The Contemporary Assault on Freedom of Movement, Yale University Press,ISBN978-0-300-04498-0
Harrison, Hope Millard (2003),Driving the Soviets Up the Wall: Soviet-East German Relations, 1953-1961, Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0-691-09678-0
Krasnov, Vladislav (1985),Soviet Defectors: The KGB Wanted List, Hoover Press,ISBN978-0-8179-8231-7
Mynz, Rainer (1995),Where Did They All Come From? Typology and Geography of European Mass Migration In the Twentieth Century; European Population Conference Congress European De Demographie, United Nations Population Division
Pearson, Raymond (1998),The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire, Macmillan,ISBN978-0-312-17407-1
Labour market efficiency and emigration in Slovakia and EU neighbouring countries,
