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Anelective monarchy is amonarchy where the ruling head iselected instead of strictly inheriting power.[1] The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the electors vary from case to case. Historically, it was common for electivemonarchies to transform into hereditary ones (whether legally orde facto) by repeated election of the previous rulers' children, or for hereditary monarchies to acquire elective or semi-elective succession laws, particularly following dynastic crises.
Most elected monarchies practicedhereditary succession, guaranteeing that the title and office stayed within the royal family and specifying, more or less precisely, the order of succession.[2] Many monarchies, to avoid ansuccession crisis, elected the next monarch when the previous one died and left noheir.[3]
The kings ofMacedon[4] and ofEpirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to theEcclesia of theDemos, the assembly of all freeAthenian citizens. Military service often was linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house.[citation needed]
In the ancientRoman Kingdom the kings were elected by theRoman assemblies. When a king died, the senate would appoint aninterrex to oversee the election for a new king.[5] Whilst given many titles (including "Augustus", i.e. "majestic") Octavian described himself asprinceps senatus, or merely "first among senators". Thus he portrayed an illusion of being elected from theSenate.[6]
A system of elective monarchy existed inAnglo-Saxon England (seeWitenagemot).[7]
John of England was chosen as King of England by a council of nobles and royal advisors at the death of his brother,Richard I, in 1199 because the heir by strict primogeniture,Arthur of Brittany, was a child at that time.[8]
In 14th, 15th, late 17th and early 18th century England, the evolving relations between the Crown andParliament resulted in a monarchy with both hereditary and quasi-elective elements[9] – at least as between various contenders with some dynastic claim for the throne.Henry IV of England was chosen by Parliament in 1399 to replaceRichard II. Richard was childless, and theEarl of March, the next in line to the throne, was a young child at the time, so Parliament bypassed him in favour of Henry, who had led a revolt against Richard. Parliament also confirmed depositions during theWars of the Roses, as well as Henry VIII's settlements of the crown. During theExclusion Crisis, King Charles II strongly opposed any such idea.
Following theGlorious Revolution, Parliament enacted theAct of Succession, whose effect was to disinherit the Stuarts and replace them by theHanoverians, whose dynastic claim was far more remote.William III andMary II were chosen by Parliament to replaceJames II. (Mary was James' daughter, William was James' nephew, and William and Mary were succeeded by Mary's younger sisterAnne.) Parliament passedlaws in the late 17th and early 18th centuries which explicitly excluded Catholics (and thus the male descendants of James II) from theorder of succession. TheSuccession to the Crown Act 2013, replaced male-preference primogeniture with absolute primogeniture and ended disqualification of a person who married a Roman Catholic from succession.
In Scotland, theDeclaration of Arbroath of 1320 asserted the rights of the nobles to choose a king if required, which implied elective monarchy.[10]Tanistry was also the system of royal succession until King Malcolm II in the early 11th century introduced direct inheritance. The Isle of Man also used tanistry.[11]
In Ireland, from the beginning of recorded history[12] until the mid-16th/early 17th century,[13] succession was determined by an elective system based on patrilineal relationship known astanistry.[14]
TheGallic tribes were each ruled by arix, which can be translated as king, who were elected for terms of one year or longer. Candidates were drawn from relatives of past kings.[15]
The Frankish kingdom was at least partly elective. Merovingian kings were elected, while Carolingian kings were elected at times. In the 10th century Western Frankish royal elections switched between different lineages before settling on the Capetians.[7]Medieval France was an elective monarchy at the time of the firstCapetian kings; the kings however took the habit of, during their reign, having their son elected as co-king and successor during their reigns. The election soon became a mere formality and vanished after the reign ofPhilip II.[16]
After declaring the throne vacant, the French Chamber of Deputies voted 229–33 to declareLouis-Philippe of France asKing of the French during theJuly Revolution of 1830,[17] creating an elective monarchy.[18] France briefly had again a kind of elective monarchy[19] whenNapoleon III was first elected President of France and then transformed himself into an Emperor.
TheHoly Roman Empire, beginning with its predecessor Eastern Francia,[7] is perhaps the best-known example of an elective monarchy. However, from 1440 to 1740, a Habsburg was always electedemperor, the throne becoming unofficially hereditary.[20] During that period, the emperor was elected from within theHouse of Habsburg by a small council of nobles calledprince-electors. The secular electoral seats were hereditary.[21] However, spiritual electors (and other prince-(arch)bishops) were usually elected by thecathedral chapters as religious leaders, but simultaneously ruled as monarch (prince) of a territory ofimperial immediacy.
Since medieval times, theKing of Bohemia was elected by theEstates ofLands of the Bohemian Crown. Since 1526, whenFerdinand I assumed the Bohemian Crown, it was always held by theHabsburg branch who later becameHoly Roman Emperor and who expected this situation to go on indefinitely. In 1618 the Bohemians chose to exercise in practice their legal right to choose a King at their discretion, despite having already electedFerdinand II as king, and bestowed the Bohemian Crown onFrederick V, Elector Palatine – "The Winter King". However, the Habsburgs regarded this as an act of rebellion, re-imposed their rule over Bohemia in theBattle of the White Mountain and in the aftermath abolished the Bohemian Elective Monarchy and made exclusive Habsburg rule the de jure as well as de facto situation.[22]
Hungary[23] was an elective monarchy until 1687. This elective right carried on for another two more decades in thePrincipality of Transylvania whichde jure continued to belong to theLands of the Hungarian Crown but had split from Hungary when the childless KingLouis II died after theBattle of Mohács.[24]
Visigothic Hispania elected the king from the relatives of past kings, in accordance with the Germanic traditions.[25] In practice, the Visigoth kings appointed their eldest sons to manage the kingdom's affairs, so that when the king died the eldest son was politically skilled enough to secure the throne.[26] In the 5th century, hereditary succession was increasingly stable until the Frankish invasions against the Visigoths led to a period of crisis in which the Visigoths reverted to elections. After the crisis was over in the 6th century, the family of Leovigild attempted to revive hereditary succession until Swintila was overthrown and the Fourth Council of Toledo formally declared elective succession as the principle of succession in 633.[27]
The Kingship of Aragon was initially elected by the "rich men" barons. Later this right was limited to the Cortes confirming the succession of the heir.[28]
The tradition of electing the country's ruler, which occurred when there was no clear heir to the throne, dates to the very beginning of Polish statehood. The election privilege, exercised during the gatherings known aswiec, was usually limited to the most powerful nobles (magnates) or officials, and was heavily influenced by local traditions and strength of the ruler.[29]
Although the elective principle was already established in Polish political culture in the late Middle Ages, the rules changed significantly in the 1570s, and the principles developed in that period lasted until thePartitions of Poland.[30] There have been thirteen royal elections in Poland–Lithuania from 1573 to 1764.[30] Roșu (2017) marked the1575/1576 Polish–Lithuanian royal election as the most significant for several reasons. First, 'the citizens of the commonwealth were forced tode facto depose theirfirst elected king – thus applying the right of disobedience they had inscribed in their public records only two years before.' Second, it resulted in two candidates being proclaimed the winner, and in subsequent events the nobility was able to confirm their majority choice forStephen Báthory and have it recognised, while avoiding war withMaximilian II of Habsburg.[31]
Scandinavian kingship, according to the Germanic tradition, was elected upon the death of the previous king.[2] The selection was not always limited to the heirs of the previous king (e.g. in Sweden when the royal house was changing between the houses of Eric and Sverker between generations). Originally, kings were supposed to be elected from among the descendants of a previous king, which was connected to descent from gods. There could also bejoint rule between multiple kings. Disputed succession was common because of a large number of sons sired by kings. However, when single rule appeared in the 9th century, civil wars grew in frequency throughout the region. Later, Christianisation led to the promulgation of primogeniture in Norway in 1163 and Denmark in 1170, but the elective idea still persisted in the requirement to be certified by a local assembly and subsequently the magnates would still elect the new king, albeit while the incumbent king was still alive. This demonstrated the enduring power of the nobles.[32]
TheSovereign Military Order of Malta, formerly known as theKnights Hospitaller or the Knights of Malta, remains asovereign subject ofinternational law since it was exiled to Rome from Malta during theFrench occupation of Malta under theFirst French Republic.[33] The Order is ruled by thePrince and Grand Master, who is elected for life by the Council Complete of State. The Prince and Grand Master holds the rank of Prince, bestowed by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1607 and holds the precedence of a cardinal of the Church since 1630.[34][35] The Council that elects the prince includes members of the Sovereign Council and other high-ranking office-holders and representatives of the Order's worldwide entities. The Sovereign Council, including the Grand Commander, the Grand Chancellor, the Grand Hospitaller, and the Receiver of the Common Treasure, aid the prince in governing the order.[36]
InAfghanistan,loya jirgas have been reportedly organized since at least the early 18th century when theHotaki andDurrani dynasties rose to power.[37]
TheParthian Empire (248 BC–224 AD), also known as the Arsacid Empire, is considered to be the oldest elective monarchy in Asia.[38]
In theMongol Empire, theGreat Khan was chosen by theKurultai. This was often convened in the capital. Other critical leadership positions were also assigned.[39]
The ancient Korean kingdom ofSilla elected its first king by a conference of tribal and village elders in 57 BC.[40]Unified Silla's kings were elected by the aristocracy whose powers were on par with the king.[41] In the kingdom of Goguryeo, the ruler was originally chosen from among the heads of the five tribes, most often the Sono tribe.[42]
There were several occasions that theKingdom of Siam andThailand turned to a semi-elective monarchy system to settle the succession of the crown among disputed heirs:
SeveralMāoritribes of the centralNorth Island ofNew Zealand electedPōtatau Te Wherowhero as their monarch in 1858. TheMāori King movement or Kiingitanga has continued to the present. The current Māori monarch (i.e. monarch of the Kiingitanga movement, not of all Māori) is Kuīni (Queen)Nga wai hono i te po. While in principle the position is not hereditary, in practice every Māori monarch thus far has been a child of the previous monarch.
TheHawaiian Kingdom could be considered ade facto example. From 1864 until the monarchy was overthrown in 1893, it was constitutionally ahereditary monarchy utilizingmale-preference primogeniture. However, the Constitutions of1864 and1887, and the draft constitution of 1893, all provided that, in the event of the extinction of the royal line, the Legislature would elect a "nativealiʻi" as the new monarch and stirps of a new dynasty. In practice, however, during the entire time from 1864 until the abolition of the monarchy, the throne was never passed from parent to child, as every Hawaiian monarch who reigned during that period died without leaving issue. Following the 1872 death ofKing Kamehameha V, a non-binding referendum was held, in whichWilliam Charles Lunalilo won; he was subsequently elected king by the legislature in 1873.King Kalākaua was elected by the legislature in 1874, after Lunalilo's death. However, when Kalākaua died in 1891, the crown demised to the collateral line of his sister,Queen Liliʻuokalani. Prior to 1864, the Hawaiian King-in-Council appointed the heir to the Hawaiian throne.[citation needed]
An attempt to create an elective monarchy in theUnited States failed.Alexander Hamilton argued in a long speech before theConstitutional Convention of 1787 that thePresident of the United States should be an elective monarch, ruling for "good behavior" (i.e.,for life, unlessimpeached) and with extensive powers. Hamilton believed that elective monarchs had sufficient power domestically to resist foreign corruption, yet there was enough domestic control over their behavior to prevent tyranny at home.[45] His proposal was resoundingly voted down in favor of a four-year term with the possibility of reelection.
The crown of theEmpire of Haiti, established in 1804, was also elective according to its 1805 constitution.[46]
In 1971 seven individual Emirates in theArabian Peninsula united to form theUnited Arab Emirates and became a federation. Upon its formation, SheikhZayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan ofAbu Dhabi was elected as the head of the state and Ra'is (President) of the union by the ruling monarchs of the other six Emirates, while Zayed himself voted forRashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, then ruler ofDubai.[47][48]Gopala, the first emperor of thePala Empire, was chosen by independent regional warchiefs in the 8th century. This arrangement was common in many contemporary tribal societies in the region.[49]
In the past; new polities or countries in internal turmoil sometimes selected and invited some person to become their monarch.For example, on 9 October 1918 the Parliament of newly independentFinland electedPrince Frederick Charles of Hesse, brother-in-law of the German EmperorWilhelm II, asKing of Finland – but soon afterwards, this move was foiled by the German defeat inWWI and the demise of Monarchy in Germany itself, and Finland opted to become a Republic instead.[50] In 862, according to tradition, variousEast Slavic andFinnic tribes invitedRurik, aVarangian chief, to re-establish order; he is considered to be the traditional founder of the Russian monarchy and his descendants ruled Russia until 1598.[51][52] In the Russian city-states ofPskov andNovgorod, various princes were invited to serve in their cities.[53][54][55]
Currently, the world's only true elective monarchies are:
Article 13 of theCambodian Constitution stipulates that themonarch is chosen for a life term by the 9-memberRoyal Council of the Throne, the composition of which includes the President of the Senate, the Speaker of the National Assembly, the Prime Minister, the two Patriarchs of the country’s two main Buddhist Sangha Nikayas, the 1st and 2nd Deputy Presidents of the Senate and the 1st and 2nd Deputy Speakers of the National Assembly. Article 14 of the Constitution further states that the royal candidate for the throne must be at least 30 years old and a descendant of the lateKing Ang Duong,King Norodom orKing Sisowath.[56]
In theHoly See and the associatedVatican City State, thePope is elected for life in aconclave by theCollege of Cardinals, generally from among their number.
TheYang di-Pertuan Agong (King) ofMalaysia is elected to a five-year term. Nine hereditary rulers from theMalay States form aConference of Rulers to determine the next king via secret ballot. The position has to date beende facto rotated amongst the state rulers, originally based on seniority. TheYang di-Pertuan Agong shall not be re-elected unless the rotation succession was complete.[57]
Thepresident is elected by theFederal Supreme Council with a term of five years.[60] Since its formation, the position has been ade facto hereditary position to the Al Nahyan sheikhs ofAbu Dhabi by consensus of the Federal Supreme Council. Likewise, the Vice President and Prime Minister of the UAE is a position held by the Al Maktoum sheikhs ofDubai. Elections are held every 5 years. The position of the ruler of each emirate of theUnited Arab Emirates is determined by consensus of the respective ruling royal family of that emirate.[61][62]
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Tanistry".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 398.If there was no uparaja at the time of the king's death—and this was frequently the case—the choice of a new monarch drawn from the royal family was left to the Senabodi, the council of senior officials, princes, and Buddhist prelates that assembled at the death of a king. It was such a council that chose Nang Klao's successor.
One of the Rus princes—Rurik (r. ca. 862–879)—became ruler of Novgorod (r. ca. 862–879) and is considered the traditional founder of Russia. Rurik was the ancestor of the many family branches of the Riurikid dynasty, which ruled until 1598.
The Pskov men invited princes to Pskov whose professional armoured cavalry was very important for a city that had constant wars with the Livonian Order. [...] The princely power grew during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries while the prince himself usually was a protégé of the grand prince of Moscow. [...] However, the right that was especially valued by Pskov men was that to expel princes whom they disliked.
From 1075 the people of Novgorod 'invited' the prince to take the throne and it is clear that the princes were now there only so long as they satisfied the Novgorodians and obeyed their laws.
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