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InWelsh culture, aneisteddfod[a] is an institution and festival with several ranked competitions, including in poetry and music.[2]: xvi The termeisteddfod, which is formed from theWelshmorphemes:eistedd, meaning 'sit', andfod, meaning 'be',[3] means, according toHywel Teifi Edwards, "sitting-together." Edwards further defines the earliest form of the eisteddfod as a competitive meeting betweenbards andminstrels, in which the winner was chosen by a noble or royal patron.[4]
Thefirst documented instance of such aliterary festival and competition took place under the patronage of PrinceRhys ap Gruffudd of theHouse of Dinefwr atCardigan Castle in 1176. However, with theEdwardian Conquest of Wales, the closing of the bardic schools, and the Anglicization of theWelsh nobility, it fell into abeyance. The current format owes much to an 18th-century revival, first patronized and overseen by the London-basedGwyneddigion Society. It was later co-opted by theGorsedd Cymru, asecret society of poets, writers, and musicians founded byIolo Morganwg, whose beliefs were "a compound of Christianity and Druidism, Philosophy and Mysticism."[5]: 191
Despite theDruidic influences and the demonstrably fictitious nature of Iolo Morganwg's doctrines, rituals, and ceremonies, both the Gorsedd and the eisteddfod revival were embraced and spread widely byAnglican andnonconformist clergy. The revival therefore proved enormously successful and is credited as one of the primary reasons for the continued survival of theWelsh language,Welsh literature, andWelsh culture after more than eight centuries of colonialism.
During his two 20th-century terms asArchdruid of theGorsedd Cymru,Albert Evans-Jones, whosebardic name wasCynan and who was awar poet andminister of thePresbyterian Church of Wales, created new rituals for both the Gorsedd and the eisteddfod which are based upon theChristian beliefs of the Welsh people rather than uponModern Druidry. After watching the initiation ofRowan Williams into the Gorsedd at the 2002 National Eisteddfod, Marcus Tanner wrote that the rituals "seemed culled from the pages ofTolkien'sThe Lord of the Rings."[5]: 189
Since its 18th-century revival, the eisteddfod tradition has been carried all over the world by theWelsh diaspora. Today'seisteddfodau (plural form) and theNational Eisteddfod of Wales in particular, are in equal parts aRenaissance fair, aCeltic festival, amusical festival, aliterary festival, and "the supreme exhibition of the Welsh culture."[6]: 52
In some other countries, the term eisteddfod is used for performing arts competitions that have nothing to do with Welsh culture or the Welsh language. In other cases, however, the eisteddfod tradition has been adapted into other cultures as part of the ongoing fight to preserveendangered languages such asIrish,Cornish,Breton,Scottish Gaelic,Canadian Gaelic,Manx,Guernésiais, andJèrriais.
As decreed by Iolo Morganwg during the late 18th century, each eisteddfod is proclaimed a year and a day prior to its opening day, by aherald from theGorsedd Cymru.[6]: 154
The proclamation is to read as follows, "When theyear of Our Lord ----, and the period of the Gorsedd of the Bards of Britain within thesummer solstice, after summons and invitation to all to all of Wales through the Gorsedd Trumpet, under warning of a year and a day, in sight and hearing of lords and commons and in the face of the sun, the eye of light, be it known that a Gorsedd and Eisteddfod will be held at the town of ----, where protections will be afforded to all who seek privilege, dignity, and license in Poetry and Minstrelsy... And thither shall come the Archdruid and the Gorsedd and others, Bards and Licensiates of the Privilege and Robe of the Bards of the Isle of Britain, there to hold judgment of Chair and Gorsedd on Music and Poetry concerning themuse, conduct, and learning of all that may come to seek the National Eisteddfod honours, according to the privilege and customs of the Gorsedd of Bards of the Isle of Britain:
According toJan Morris, "TheEisteddfod Genedlaethol flourishes as never before, having matured from crankyantiquarianism through rigid chapel respectability to a fairly pragmatic tolerance of public views and social styles. Though its competitions are confined solely to the Welsh language, and even though many Welsh-speaking writers and musicians prefer to have nothing to do with it, still it remains the Chief public expression of the Welsh culture's continued existence, the one occasion when a stranger can realize that the language is still creative, the traditions are not lost, and the loyalty of the Welsh to their origins is not dissipated. Honorary membership in the Gorsedd is still the only honour the Welsh nation can bestow upon its sons and daughters, and in a key and of back-handed symbolism, theBritish Government'sSecretary of State for Wales is generally invited to open the festival's proceedings (generally having to learn a few words of Welsh in order to do so). The Eisteddfod in full fig is rather like a military encampment. All its tents and pavilions are erected around a big central space, theMaes, or Field, which is usually scuffed and slippery with mud by the end of the week."[6]: 155-156
Morris continues, "Most institutions of modern Wales are represented on theMaes, Gas Board toUniversity of Wales Press, the genteel Society for the Protection of Rural Wales to the fieryCymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg theWelsh Language Society. There are shops sellingharps, and comic stickers, andLol the lewd and racy student magazine, and pottery, and evangelical tracts, and lots and lots of books."[6]: 156
Also according to Morris, "the Eisteddfod is essentially competitive: there are competitions forpenillion, andenglynion, and male voice choirs, and poems instrict meter, and poems infree metre, and essays, and translations, and plays, and short stories." Also, according to Morris, "outside thePabell Lên, the Literary Tent, poets mutter couplets to themselves, or exchange bitter Bardic complaints."[6]: 156-157
However, the most important events at any eisteddfod are thechairing of the bard who has written the bestawdl, or poem instrict meter, based on a title chosen by the judges, and thecrowning of the bard who has written the bestpryddest, or poem infree verse, with a similarly predetermined title.
According to Morris, "When Welsh poets speak offree verse, they mean forms like thesonnet or theode, which obey the same rules as Englishpoesy.Strict Metres verse still honours the immensely complex rules laid down for correct poetic composition 600 years ago."[6]: 152
During these ceremonies, according to Morris, "the whole assembly seems to turn towards the Grand Pavilion, claimed to be the largest movable structure in the world. Multitudes jam its doors then, as cameras swing about its gantries, and the worthies of the Gorsedd of the Isle of Britain, robed in green, white, and blue, are unloaded from buses at its entrance."[6]: 157
Before the Archdruid of the Gorsedd reveals the identity of the winning poet, theCorn Gwlad (a trumpet) blares to the east, west, north, and south to symbolically call the people together from the four corners of Wales. TheGorsedd Prayer is then recited. Flanked by his fellow members of the Gorsedd in ceremonialNeo-Druidic robes, as well as the Herald, the Recorder, and the Swordbearer, the Archdruid partially withdraws the Great Sword from its sheath three times, and asks, "A oes heddwch?" ('Is there peace?'), to which the assembly replies, "Heddwch" ('Peace'). The Great Sword is then driven fully back into its sheath, and is never drawn again until the next eisteddfod the following year. "Green clad elves come dancing in", escorting a young local married woman, who presents theHorn of Plenty to the Archdruid and urges him to drink of the 'wine of welcome'. A young girl presents him with a basket of 'flowers from the land and soil of Wales' and a floral dance is performed, based on a pattern of flower gathering from the fields.[6]: 157
According to Morris, "Harps play. Children sing. The tension mounts, for nobody in that immense audience yet knows who is to be the recipient of all this honour. The winning poet is somewhere among them, but first he must be found."[6]: 157
The Archdruid then asks one of the judges to comment on the winning entry and explain the reasons why it was chosen. After the judge does so, the Archdruid thanks the judge for his or her, "excellent adjudication". The Archdruid then announces that if the poet or writer whoseawdl,pryddest, or essay was submitted under a certainpen name is present, then he or she is stand up.
According to Morris, "the poet has really known for some time that he is the winner, but he pretends a proper astonishment anyway, and is raised faintly resisting to his feet, and out to the aisle, and away up to the platform escorted by Druids. The organ blazes a grand march, the gathering rises to its feet, the cameras whirr, and the bard is throned upon his Bardic throne, attended by elves and trumpeters and druids, in a haze of medallions, oaken wands, gleaming accoutrements and bannerstalismanically inscribed. Gently he is seated uponthe Chair which is itself his prize, and he is proclaimed a champion: not because he won a war or a football game or even an election, but because he is judged by wise men of his nation to have composed a worthycywydd concerning the nature of clouds."[6]: 157-158
To win the chair or the crown competitions, particularly at the National Eisteddfod of Wales, grants even previously unknown poets and writers enormous publicity and prestige. The winner of the bardic chair and crown at the National Eisteddfod both receive the lifelong titleprifardd ('chief-bard'). For the same poet to win both the chair and the crown at the same eisteddfod is almost unheard of, butAlan Llwyd andDonald Evans have both succeeded at doing so twice.
According toHywel Teifi Edwards, the ceremony of presenting theProse Medal [cy], which has been awarded since 1937, has progressively grown in importance, "but still trails far in the wake of the Chairing and Crowning. The poet is not to be upstaged by novelist, short-story writer, autobiographer, biographer, or what have you. All attempts to transfer the Crown from poetry to prose have been forestalled, the poets rallying to the defense of what is 'rightfully' theirs with the cry of, 'What we have, we hold.'"[7]: 67
At the National Eisteddfod, aGold Medal (Welsh:Medal Aur) is annually awarded in three categories; Fine Art, Architecture, and Craft and Design. Furthermore, the National Eisteddfod's open exhibition of art and craft,Y Lle Celf ('The Art Space') is one of the highlights of the calendar for Welsh artists.[8]
According to Jan Morris, "Welsh creativity is unusually disciplined, for since the earliest times the Welsh artistic tradition has been governed by codes and conventions – perhaps since the Druids, relying as they did entirely upon their memories, drew up rules of composition to make it easier for themselves. In the Wales of the Independence the Bards and Harpers were institutionalized, with their own allotted places in society, their established functions to perform. They regarded poetry and music as professions, for the practice of which one must qualify, like a lawyer or a doctor. There were agreed measurements of value for a work of art, and the subjects of poetry were formalized, consisting at least until the fourteenth century mainly of eulogies and elegies. Musicians were restricted by intricate rules of composition. Poets were governed by theTwenty-Four Strict Metres of the classical Welsh tradition. Among theCymry Cymraeg the Metres still prevail."[6]: 152
According to Hywel Teifi Edwards, "The Eisteddfod, then, has evolved from a medieval testing-ground-cum-house of correction for professional Bards and Minstrels into a popular festival which annually highlights the literary scene with the aid of the Gorsedd. Lectures and discussions inY Babell Lên, followed by reviews of theCyfansoddiadau a Beirniadaethau in a variety of publications help to encourage a deeper and more abiding interest in Welsh literature. That 'The National' acts as a means of heightening an awareness of language and literature as humanizing forces which no society can neglect with impunity is not too large a claim to make for it."[7]: 73
Also according to Morris, "literature is the first Welsh glory,poetry itsapotheosis, and the company of poets is the nobility of this nation."[6]: 161
According to Edwards, there is a legend that the first eisteddfod took place at the royal behest ofMaelgwn Gwynedd atConwy during the 6th century. It was Maelgwn's wish that the assembled bards and minstrels would compete against each other. First, however, Maelgwn decreed that they must all swim theRiver Conwy first and that the minstrels must do so carrying the harps on their backs. For this reason, the bards, whom Maelgwn favoured, ended up winning the contest.[7]: 3
According to legend,Gruffudd ap Cynan (1055–1137), theDublin-born King ofGwynedd from theHouse of Aberffraw and the descendant ofRhodri Mawr,Sigtrygg Silkbeard, andBrian Boru, not only reformed the Welsh bardic schools to accord with those that trained theIrish language bards, but also served as patron to an eisteddfod atCaerwys during his reign.[7]: 9
Thefirst documented eisteddfod was hosted byRhys ap Gruffydd, the grandson ofGruffudd ap Cynan through the maternal line and monarch ofDeheubarth through his paternal descent from theHouse of Dinefwr, atCardigan Castle on Christmas Day, 1176. According to Hywel Teifi Edwards, what few details are recorded of the event in theBrut y Tywysogion, "encourage the view that it could not have been the first of its kind."[7]: 6
Rhys awarded two chairs as prizes, one for the winner of the poetry competition and the other for music. The bardic chair went to a poet fromGwynedd, while the musical chair went to the son of Eilon the Crythwr, a member of Rhys's court.[9] Armchairs were a valuable asset, normally reserved for people of high status.[10]
In 2007, Welsh historian Roger Turvey, writing ofDinefwr Castle, suggested that The Lord Rhys's idea for a competitive festival of music and poetry at Cardigan Castle may have been inspired by similar contests in other parts ofCatholic Europe. In those other countries, aspiring poets were trained through apprenticeship tomaster craftsmen or by attending schools run by poets'guilds such as thePuy of France, theMeistersingers of theHoly Roman Empire, or theRederijkerskamers ofthe Netherlands, all of which also organized eisteddfod-like contests between poets onpatronal feast days of theRoman Catholicliturgical year. The Lord Rhys, Turvey suggested, may have learned about the Puy tradition from theCambro-Normans in theWelsh Marches or from Welsh mercenary soldiers returning from France.[11]
When asked about Turvey's theory, recognized eisteddfod historian Hywel Teifi Edwards said, "It's conjecture, but there's no doubt that there was a bardic tradition of competition for status before this time." Edwards further stated that any foreign influence was an indication of how very cosmopolitan Medieval Wales had been. "It's a sign of a healthy culture to accept – and marry with – other cultures," he added.[11]
The next large-scale eisteddfod that is historically known is the three-month-long 1450 eisteddfod atCarmarthen Castle underGruffudd ap Nicolas. At the eisteddfod theCadair Arian ('Silver Chair'), which is said to have been fashioned by Gruffudd ap Nicolas himself, was won by acywydd in honour of theHoly Trinity composed byDafydd ab Edmwnd, a Welsh poet who did not depend on noble patronage, fromHanmer, Flintshire.[7]: 6-8 Welsh poet and Roman Catholic priestLlawdden, however, accused Gruffudd ap Nicolas of accepting a bribe fromDafydd ab Edmwnd in return for the Silver Chair.[12]
Dafydd ab Edmwnd'scywydd exemplified the24 strict metres ofWelsh poetry, previously codified byEinion Offeiriad andDafydd Ddu o Hiraddug, as Dafydd ab Edmwnd had personally reformed them. He deleted two metres and replaced them with the more complicatedGorchest y Beirdd and theCadwynfyr.
The reform of the 24 metres presented by Dafydd was formally accepted at the 1450 Carmarthen eisteddfod and was widely adopted by bards throughout Wales.[13] The consequence of Dafydd's reforms was that greater emphasis was placed by the bardic elite upon adhering to the stricter metres rather than to the theme or content of their poetry.
Until this time, the training of Welsh poets had always been a secret, with the craft handed down from teacher to apprentice, but, as the poetry of the professional bards became increasingly incomprehensible, less complex and more popularly oriented works ofWelsh poetry began to be composed by bards with humbler origins and less formal training.
According toJohn Davies, a team of researchers led by Dafydd Bowen has demonstrated that the Welsh bards of the 15th century were completely dependent upon the Welsh nobility and the monks and abbots of monasteries such asStrata Florida andValle Crucis Abbey for both hospitality andpatronage in return forpraise poetry.[14] Davies adds, however, that, "in a notable article",Welsh nationalist andtraditional Catholic writerSaunders Lewis argued that the Welsh bards of the era, "were expressing in their poetry a love for a stable, deep-rooted civilization." Lewis added that the bards "were the leading upholders of the belief that a hierarchical social structure, 'the heritage and tradition of an ancient aristocracy', were the necessary precondition of civilized life and that there were deep philosophical roots to this belief."[14]
The next eisteddfod that is historically documented is the 1451Carmarthen eisteddfod.[15][16]
In 1523, an eisteddfod was held at Caerwys under KingHenry VIII's charter and was led by Welsh bard and futureFranciscan friar,Tudur Aled.[17] At the urging of thearistocraticMostyn family ofTalacre Hall, a Statute, which was attributed to KingGruffydd ap Cynan ofGwynedd, was used as the basis for the eisteddfod. The Statute listed the rights of bards in Welsh culture and undertraditional Welsh law, while also arguing that bards should not drink to excess, womanize, or gamble.[7]: 8–10 In addition, the Statute further stated that a true bard must never writesatirical poetry[7]: 28–29 and codified the rules of praise poetry at a time when the Welsh bardic tradition of was increasingly under threat and, "demanded that the bard celebrate in elevated language the orderliness of a God-centered world."[7]: 8–10
QueenElizabeth I of England commanded that Welsh bards be examined and licensed by officials of the Crown, who had alleged that those whom they considered genuine bards were, "much discouraged to travail in the exercise and practice of their knowledge and also not a little hindered in their living and preferments."[7]: 10 Unlicensed bards, according to Hywel Teifi Edwards, "would be put to some honest work." Although Edwards has compared the unlicensed bards of the era with, "today's abusers of theSocial security system,"[7]: 8–10 historian Philip Caraman quotes a 1575 "Report on Wales" that reveals an additional reason for the decree. During the Queen's ongoingreligious persecution of theCatholic Church in England and Wales, many WelshPencerddau ('head bards') were, according to the report, acting as the secret emissaries ofRecusants in the Welsh nobility and were helping those nobles spread the news about secretCatholic masses andpilgrimages.[18]
This was no idle claim. When Welsh Recusant, schoolmaster, and unlicensed bardRichard Gwyn was put on trial forhigh treason before a panel of judges headed by theChief Justice ofChester,Sir George Bromley, atWrexham in 1583, Gwyn stood accused of refusing to take theOath of Supremacy, denying the Queen's claim to beSupreme Head of the Church of England, of involvement in the local Catholic underground, but also of composing satirical poetry aimed at theestablished church and reciting, "certain rhymes of his own making against married priests and ministers." Gwyn was found guilty and condemned to death byhanging, drawing and quartering. The sentence was carried out in the Beast Market in Wrexham on 15 October 1584. Just before Gwyn was hanged he turned to the crowd and said, "I have been a jesting fellow, and if I have offended any that way, or by my songs, I beseech them for God's sake to forgive me."[19] The hangman pulled at Gwyn's leg irons hoping to put him out of his pain. When he appeared dead they cut him down, but he revived and remained conscious through the disembowelling, until his head was severed. His last words, in Welsh, were reportedly "Iesu, trugarha wrthyf" ('Jesus, have mercy on me').
Richard Gwyn was canonised byPope Paul VI in 1970 as one of theForty Martyrs of England and Wales. Hisfeast day is celebrated on 17 October. FollowingCatholic Emancipation in 1829, six works ofChristian poetry in the Welsh language by Richard Gwyn, five carols and a satiricalCywydd composed inWrexham Gaol following the assassination ofDutch Revolt leaderWilliam the Silent byBalthasar Gérard, were discovered and published.[20][21] Similar Welsh poetry in strict metre survives from other Recusant Bards of the era, such asRobert Gwin,Catrin ferch Gruffudd ap Hywel, andGruffydd Robert.
Despite their battles being so similar to his own against government censorship, SirPhilip Sidney, inAn Apology for Poetry, expressed both admiration for and envy of the prestige that poets enjoyed inWelsh culture, which he contrasted with what he described as theElizabethan era tendency inEnglish culture to treat poets as unwanted stepchildren, "In Wales, the true remnant of the ancient Brittons, as there are good authorities to show, the long time they had poets which they called Bards: so through all the conquests ofRomans,Saxons,Danes, andNormans, some of whom, did seek to ruin all memory of learning from among them, yet do their poets even to this day last: so as it is not more notable in the soon beginning, then in long continuing."
Likely due to the continued existence of Recusant Bards, the 1567 and 1568 Caerwys eisteddfodau were patronized by the Queen, so that, "all or every person or persons that intend to maintain their living by name or colour of Minstrelsy, rhymers, or bards... shall.. shew their learning thereby",[5]: 192 and overseen by the officials of herCouncil of Wales and the Marches.[7]: 8–10 By royal decree, only Welsh bards licensed by the officials of the Queen were permitted to compete.
At the eisteddfod held in Caerwys in 1568, the prizes awarded were a miniature silver chair to the winning poet, a little silvercrwth to the winning fiddler, a silver tongue to the best singer, and a tiny silver harp to the best harpist. The chief chaired bard of the event wasRobert Davies (fromNant-glyn) and the second being "Twm o'r Nant".
Theofficial Anglican translation of theBible into the Welsh language, which continues to have an enormous influence on the Welsh poetry submitted to the eisteddfodau, saw its first publication in 1588. The translator, ReverendWilliam Morgan, was aCambridge graduate and later becameAnglicanBishop of Llandaff andSt Asaph. He based his Biblical translation on theHebrew and Greek original Bibles, while also consulting theEnglish Bishops' andGeneva translations.Y Beibl cyssegr-lan, as it was called, also included original translations as well as adaptations ofWilliam Salesbury's WelshNew Testament. No other book in theWelsh language has been anywhere near as influential in linguistic or literary terms. Bishop Morgan skillfully moulded theMiddle Welshliterary language of the medieval bards (Yr Heniaith, or 'the old language') into theElizabethan-eraCymraeg Llenyddol ('literary Welsh') still in use today. Even though there is a major difference betweenCymraeg Llenyddol and all 21st century spoken dialects of the Welsh language, eisteddfod submissions are still required to be composed in the literary language of Bishop Morgan's Bible, which remains the foundation upon which all subsequent Welsh literature has been built.
According to Marcus Tanner, Queen Elizabeth I's experiment at royal patronage of the eisteddfod did not catch on and, as the 16th and 17th centuries progressed, the Welsh nobility became increasinglyAnglicized and ceased to grant employment or hospitality to Welsh-language poets. Although eisteddfodau continued, the gatherings became more informal; Welsh poets would often meet in taverns, cemeteries, or inns to have "assemblies of rhymers".[5]: 192 But the interest of the Welsh people dwindled to such a point that the eisteddfod held atGlamorgan in 1620 attracted an audience of only four people.[5]: 192 The winners, however, continued to receive a chair, which was a highly prized award because of its perceived social status.
Throughout the medieval period, high-backed chairs with arm rests were reserved for royalty and high-status leaders in military, religious, or political affairs. As most ordinary people sat on stools until the 1700s, the award of anarmchair immediately changed the social class of a winning bard.
In 1701, an eisteddfod was held atMachynlleth in order, "To begin to renew the eisteddfod of bards (as they were in olden times), to reprimand falsecynghanedd, to explain the difficult things, and to confirm what is correct in the art of poetry in the Welsh language."[7]: 12
The 1701 eisteddfod was followed, according to Edwards, by a series ofEisteddfodau'r Almaciau, so called because they were widely advertised in the cheap almanacs that were widely available. Theenglynion andcywyddau composed for these events "owe more to the beery atmosphere at which they were composed than to genuine inspiration and craft."[7]: 12
In 1734,Siôn Rhydderch organized an eisteddfod adjudicated by a panel of 12 judges atDolgellau, but upon his arrival there was greeted by only six poets, "and all the signs of apathy and dejection."[7]: 13
Comparing this disappointing response to what he saw as the glory of the Elizabethan-era eisteddfodau at Caerwys, Rhydderch vowed that he would have no role in further efforts to revive the tradition, "unless some others may feel like restarting and setting up the thing. And if it will be like that, if I am alive and well, I shall not be hindered from coming to that."[7]: 13
In 1788, Thomas Jones andJonathan Hughes asked the London-basedGwyneddigion Society to donate, "some small present out of goodwill to those who are trying to crawl after their mother tongue."[7]: 13
Although the Gwyneddigion Society agreed, they laid down certain conditions to their support that permanently altered the future course of the eisteddfod and its traditions. The Gwyneddigion claimed for themselves the right to proclaim both the eisteddfod and the theme of the main competition which they alone would set, one year in advance. The poems were to be submitted under pseudonyms and would be adjudicated solely upon their literary merits. The poems and the adjudicator's comments would then be forwarded to the eisteddfod in a sealed package. The adjudicators were to be able men for the job and were to choose the winning entry based upon "purity of language and regular composition of the poems to be among their chief merits."[7]: 13–14
The adjudicators were to meet together and give an impartial decision and, in the event of any disagreement, the Gwyneddigion would endeavor to resolve the dispute. The name of the winning poet would be announced upon the first day of the eisteddfod and, owing to the dignity of his status asPencerdd, the winner was not to compete alongside the other poets in the composition of impromptu verse.[7]: 14
In so doing, the Gwyneddigion laid down the framework for the modernNational Eisteddfod of Wales. According to Hywel Teifi Edwards, "there was to be notice given a year in advance ofone organized, annual eisteddfod answerable to a central, controlling authority which would require competitors to submit their compositions pseudonymously to a panel of competent adjudicators."[7]: 14
Although the Gwyneddigion did not succeed in their ambition of transforming the eisteddfod "into an Academy that would act as a forcing house for Welsh culture", they have wielded considerable influence over continued requirement for long poems as eisteddfod submissions.[7]: 14 Furthermore, in reaction to the incomprehensibility of Welsh poetry composed instrict meter, the Gwyneddigion held up the recent poetry of ReverendGoronwy Owen as a better model.[7]: 14–15
Long before his death on his tobacco and cotton plantation nearLawrenceville, Virginia in 1769, Owen had often expressed the desire to compose anepic work ofChristian poetry which would be the equal ofJohn Milton'sParadise Lost. Owen felt, however, that the rules ofWelsh poetry instrict meter prevented him from doing so.[7]: 14–15 Therefore, by holding Owen up as a model, the Gwyneddigion ensured that his literary legacy is that, as late as 1930, both the adjudicators and the poets composing submissions to the National Eisteddfod of Wales were aspiring to produce the Welshnational epic that Owen had longed to write in vain.[7]: 29–31
The first eisteddfod of the revival, for which "Thomas Jones simply used" the name of the Gwyneddigion "for promotional purposes", was held atCorwen in May 1789.Gwallter Mechain was judged the winner, having illegally been informed in advance by Thomas Jones of the subjects for the impromptu poetry contests. Despite outraged complaints by Gwallter Mechain's competitors, the Gwyneddigion upheld the judges' decision.[7]: 15–16
The first eisteddfod held in full accordance with the Gwyneddigion Society's new rules was held atBala in September 1789. Theawdlau that were submitted for the bardic chair were on the themeIstyriaethar Oes Dyn ('A Consideration of Man's Life') and, according to Edwards, "heralded the appearance of the newawdl."[7]: 15
According to Hywel Teifi Edwards, while the awarding of a chair is a very old tradition, the now-familiar ceremony of the chairing of the bard who has composed the bestawdl dates from the eisteddfod revival of the early 1790s.[7]: 15
During the 1790 eisteddfod held atSt. Asaph,Gwyneddigion Society member Edward Williams, whose bardic name was Iolo Morganwg, became convinced that he and his fellow Welsh poets were the descendants of the Druids and that the eisteddfod was a survival of Druidic ritual. In response, Iolo Morganwg, according to Marcus Tanner, "reintroduced what he considered the ritual of an ancient Bardic congress to a series of rather ordinary literary proceedings conducted chiefly in hotels."[5]: 192
To accomplish this end, in 1792 Iolo Morganwg founded asecret society of Welsh poets, which he dubbedGorsedd Beirdd Ynys Prydain. Morganwg also invented its structure and rituals, for which he drew upon on a mixture ofFreemasonry,Welsh mythology, modern Druidry, and someChristian elements. Morganwg alleged, however, that the Gorsedd was a survival from pre-Christian Wales.[22] The fictitious origin of Morganwg's claims and of the Gorsedd's ceremonies were firmly established only in the 20th century by Professor G.J. Williams.[23]
In October 1792,The Gentleman's Magazine reported, "This being the day on which the autumnalequinox occurred, some Welsh bards resident in London assembled in congress onPrimrose Hill, according to ancient usage... A circle of stones formed, in the middle of which was the Maan Gorsedd, or altar, on which a naked sword being placed, all the Bards assisted to sheathe it. This ceremony was attended with a proclamation, the substance of which was that the Bards of the Isles of Britain (for such is their ancient name) were the heralds and ministers of peace."[5]: 190-191
In 1814, an observer caught sight of Iolo Morganwg walking behind a banner atPontypridd, "at the head of a procession... over the great bridge and then over to the Rocking Stone on the common above. Ancient ceremonies were performed on the great stone by Iolo in the role ofY Gwyddon, orOdin, theArchdruid, not the least being the sheathing the State Sword of Wales to convey the valuable lesson, as inGethsemane, that there is more credit in sheathing the sabre than in drawing it forth among the sons of men."[5]: 191
The eisteddfod revival, however, was briefly brought to a halt by theNapoleonic Wars, but was again restarted following theBattle of Waterloo in 1815.[7]: 16
The earliest known surviving bardic chair made specifically for an eisteddfod was constructed in 1819. Iolo Morganwg and the Gorsedd made their first appearance at the same eisteddfod, which was held at the Ivy Bush Inn atCarmarthen in 1819, and its close association with the festival has continued since then.
Also at the 1819 Carmarthen eisteddfod, Iolo Morganwg presented a freer code of meters. While still defending the superiority ofcynghanedd, Morganwg said this had also been used inGwent andGlamorgan for centuries prior toDafydd ab Edmwnd's 15th century reforms. This led, after considerable debate between traditionalists and innovators, to the adoption of the eisteddfod contest for bestpryddest and the ceremony of the crowning of the bard.[7]: 18
Meanwhile,ArchdeaconThomas Beynon, the president of the CarmarthenCymreigyddion Society and a staunch patron of the provincial eisteddfodau, was persistently urging for the adoption ofblank verse, or unrhymediambic pentameter, as another alternative toWelsh poetry instrict meter.[7]: 19
Meanwhile, all poems submitted to eisteddfodau began being published in 1822, which allowed for the first time for theWelsh people to read the poems and to decide for themselves about their merits and flaws.[7]: 18
At the 1824National Eisteddfod inPowys,satirical poetry in the traditionalenglyn form was submitted under the pre-announced title "Beddargraff Dic Siôn Dafydd" ("TheEpitaph ofDic Siôn Dafydd").[24]
According toHywel Teifi Edwards, "Ten 'Provincial Eisteddfodau' were held between 1819 and 1834, eisteddfodau on a scale never witnessed before. They were patronized by Anglicized gentry and graced byroyalty whenGeorge IV's brother,the Duke of Sussex, appeared atDenbigh in 1828 to be followed atBeaumaris in 1832 by the youngPrincess Victoria andher mother."[7]: 17
Following the 1847attack by the Blue Books against the moral character of theWelsh people,Welsh poetry composed for the eisteddfodau "found itself trapped within the part allotted the Welsh language in the counterattack against the Blue Books." For this reason, much of the poetry written sought to promote an image of theWelsh people as "God-fearing,Queen-loving", and, "Empire-supporting."[7]: 27
At the 1850Rhuddlan Royal Eisteddfod, £25 and a Chair Medallion were offered for the bestPryddestawd on the themeYr Adgyfodiad ('the Resurrection'). The poets were allowed to choose the meter, excluding blank verse, that best suited them.Caledfryn submitted anawdl, whileEben Fardd andEvan Evans (Ieuan Glan Geirionydd) submittedAlexandrinePryddestau. In a judgment unheard-of in Eisteddfod history: Ieuan Glan Gerionydd's AlexandrinePryddest was judged superior and was awarded the £25 and Chair Medallion over Caledfryn'sAwdl instrict metre.[7]: 19
Upon the publication of all the Eisteddfod's submissions, however, Eben Fardd's attempt at anepic work of Christian poetry was "hailed by theliterati as a work of distinction far surpassing the pallid, common-sense poem written by Ieuan Glan Gerionydd".[7]: 20 As Eben Fardd'sPryddest had been relegated to third place by the judges, it was widely felt that something was seriously wrong with adjudication standards and "talk of eisteddfod reform was in the air."[7]: 20
In 1858John Williams, whose bardic name wasAb Ithel, held a "national" eisteddfod with theGorsedd Cymru inLlangollen. "The great Llangollen Eisteddfod of 1858" proved highly significant for several reasons. For example, John Williams (the event's organiser), offered £20 and a Silver Star for the best essay on the theme,The Discovery of America in the 12th-century by PrinceMadoc abOwain Gwynedd. This was, according to Hywel Teifi Edwards, a subject inspired by Iolo Morganwg.[7]: 20-21
Instead, Welsh historianThomas Stephens submitted an essay that, in what Edwards has described, as a "scholarly tour de force, demolished the cherished myth". In response, Ab Ithel decreed, "that the essay broke with the spirit of the competition", and would not be awarded the prize. In response, a scandalized crowd followed Stephens into the Cambrian Tent, where he read his essay aloud before them despite Ab Ithel's efforts to drown him out with a convenient brass band. Despite having been denied the prize, Stephens succeeded in persuading his audience that Prince Madoc did not in fact discover the New World.[7]: 21
The Llangollen eisteddfod also saw the first public appearance ofJohn Ceiriog Hughes, who won a prize for thelove poem,MyfanwyFychan of Dinas Brân, which contradicts the Blue Books by describing a virtuous Welsh woman. As may be expected, the song became an instant hit.[7]: 32-33 This eisteddfod outraged the English-language press. TheDaily Telegraph called it "a national debauch of sentimentality". A writer forThe Times went even farther, calling the eisteddfod "simply foolish interference with the natural progress of civilization and prosperity – it is a monstrous folly to encourage the Welsh in a loving fondness for their old language."[6]: 155
Before the 1858 Llangollen eisteddfod was over, however, a meeting of Welsh literati had taken place and decided that an annual national eisteddfod, conducted with due regard for standards, was long overdue.Yr Eisteddfod, a national body guided by an elected council, was formed and the Gorsedd subsequently merged with it. The Gorsedd holds the right of proclamation and of governance while the council organizes the event. The first true National Eisteddfod organized by the council was held inAberdare in 1861 on a pattern that continues to the present day.[7]: 21
According to Hywel Teifi Edwards, "The 1860s found the eisteddfod poet beset with doubt, as the words ofEben Fardd andTalhaiarn (John Jones 1810–69), two of the foremost poets of the time, prove. Both accepted the subservience of their mother tongue and the diminished role of the poet in thesteam age. If poetryper se was of questionable value, how much more so Welsh poetry, and strict meter poetry at that? What could be less marketable in an age that marketed English was withprogress than Welsh poetry? It was galling whenFleet Street taunted Wales with its want of aShakespeare, aMilton, aWordsworth or aTennyson. It was shattering whenMatthew Arnold, scourge ofphilistinism and hawker of Celtic magic, insisted that any Welsh poet with anything worth saying should say it in English.Edward Dafydd, in1655, expressed the sense of desolation he felt as he pondered the passing of the old order and the coming of a bleak age:Nid yw'r bid hwn gyda'r beirdd ('This world is not for poets.') He could well have been speaking for the poets of the 1860s."[7]: 25–26
Also during theVictorian era, the poets who won the chair or the crown at the National Eisteddfod were praised to a degree that subsequentliterary critics and historians have found not only excessive, but "ludicrous". According to Edwards, however, "It is easy to laugh at the besotted rhetoric of the period, but let us remember how starved of respect Welsh literature was for most of the time and how marginal was the role allotted to most writers. The Eisteddfod, with its huge audience, offered both glory and economic reward. It is perfectly natural, given the circumstances, that the accolade 'National Winner' should be surrounded with so much hype and sought after so frantically."[7]: 73
Perhaps for these reasons, during the late 19th century, according to Edwards, "Wales still pursued 'the one poem' that alone, theRenaissance had taught, justified a literature's claim to greatness."[7]: 30
The Welsh poetLewis William Lewis (1831–1901), whose bardic name was Llew Llwyfo, repeatedly attempted in his eisteddfod submissions to, "achieve thenational epic that would merit translation into the major literatures". He chose subjects such asCaractacus, theArthurian legend,Llewellyn the Last, and even theOld TestamentKing David. Although Edwards is very critical of Llew Llwyfo and accuses him of following the then common practice of imitating Victorian-eraEnglish poetry,[7]: 30-31 Lewis's poetry repeatedly won first prize at multiple eisteddfodau held both in Wales and withinWelsh-American immigrant communities.[25]
Tragically, however, "a Welsh epic refused to materialize. A succession of aspirants rifled the works of authorities fromHomer toBulwer-Lytton in the hope of hitting upon a formula that would take."[7]: 30
According to Jan Morris, "By the end of the century,Hubert Herkomer, one of the most fashionable painters of his day, had created for [the Gorsedd]'s functionaries gloriously neo-Druidical robes and insignia of gold, velvet, and ermine (theArchdruid's breastplate was designed to choke him, Herkomer said, if he gave a false judgement)."[6]: 155
Even though the title had been previously chosen by the eisteddfod judges, almost certainly in the hope of inspiring a Welsh equivalent toLord Tennyson'sIdylls of the King,[26]Thomas Gwynn Jones's hugely influentialawdl,Ymadawiad Arthur ("The Passing of Arthur")[27] won its author the bardic chair at the National Eisteddfod in 1902.
The poem, according to Hywel Teifi Edwards, "brought back some of themythopoeic grandeur whichJohn Morris-Jones yearned for. More than that, he made ofBedwyr, the knight charged byArthur to throw the great swordExcalibur into the lake, a prototype of the twentieth-century Welshman who, from generation to generation, armed only with a vision of his culture's worth, fights for its survival against an all-devouring materialism. Bedwyr, agonizing over the catastrophe which he feared would befall his defenseless country should he obey Arthur's command, is one of the most deeply moving figures in Welsh literature. Denied the security of a matchless weapon, the last tangible proof of Arthur's supernatural strength, he must fight on with only his faith inArthur's promised return fromAfalon to sustain him."[7]: 50-51
Unlike the many works of English,French, andGerman poetry inspired by theArthurian legend,Ymadawiad Arthur makes frequent references to Welsh literature and the Welsh mythology of theMabinogion, and is believed to derive its narrative flow from Jones's careful study of that same source.[28][29] William Beynon Davies further considersYmadawiad Arthur a work of subtly Christian poetry based on its many Biblical parallels, as King Arthur resembles in some ways theMessiah and in others theSuffering Servant.[30]
Thomas Gwynn Jones has been called the greatest master of Welsh poetry in strict meter since the 15th century[31][32] and, inYmadawiad Arthur, according to one critic, thecynghanedd "is so smooth and natural that often we deem it accidental".[33] It is well documented, however, that Jones carefully studied medievalcywyddau, and the verse technique ofYmadawiad Arthur benefited substantially from this study.[26] The poem is also notable for Jones's revival of many words fromMedieval Welsh, Jones being an influential exponent of what he calledRhin yr Heniaith ("The Virtue of the Old Language").[29]
In 1905,Thomas Marchant Williams wasknighted by KingEdward VII for his part in the revival of theCymmrodorion Society and the establishment of the National Eisteddfod Association.
During the 1912 National Eisteddfod atWrexham,T.H. Parry-Williams achieved for the first time the almost unheard of feat of winning both the chair and the crown. Parry-Williams later recalled returning home toRhyd-ddu, where had been working as a hired hand on the farm of a relative. Upon telling his employer of his double victory, Parry-Williams was advised to "seek grace". When Parry-Williams then informed his employer that both victories had gained him £40, the relative shouted in angry disbelief, "Ac mi gwnest nhw i gyd ar dy din!!!" ('And you did them all sitting on your arse!!!')[7]: 76-77
One of the most dramatic events in the 900-year history of the eisteddfod took place on 6 September 1917, duringWorld War I. It was the award of the bardic chair during the second day of the 1917 National Eisteddfod of Wales atBirkenhead Park in theEnglish town of the same name.[34] The three adjudicators in the chair competition agreed unanimously that the bestawdl by far on the set themeYr Arwr ('The Hero') had been submitted under the pseudonymFleur-de-lis. The bard was then summoned three times by the ArchdruidDyfed to stand up, in vain. The Archdruid then announced that the poet who submitted the winningawdl had died during the short time between mailing his submission and the date of the eisteddfod. His name was PrivateEllis Humphrey Evans, whose bardic name wasHedd Wyn ('Blessed Peace'), of the 15th Battalion,Royal Welch Fusiliers, and he had fallen during thetrench warfare, "somewhere in France". The bardic chair was covered with a black sheet and, according to newspaper reports, "there wasn't a dry eye in thepavilion." Ever since, the 1917 National Eisteddfod of Wales has been referred to as "Eisteddfod y Gadair Ddu" ('The Eisteddfod of the Black Chair').[34] According to Jan Morris, "Hedd Wyn became a legend, a symbol, and an inspiration to other poets. 'The Black Chair of Birkenhead' was taken sadly home toGwynedd, to be placed with the other trophies of Hedd Wyn's short life in the family farm above theBala road, and there we may visit it still. It has never been forgotten. A constant stream of visitors, patriots, poets, groups of schoolchildren, winds its way up the long farm drive, in the lee of the hills, to the old house among its clumped trees. It stands there all alone looking out magnificently over bare hills to the ramparts ofEryri in the distance – the very epitome of a Welsh view, all grandeur tinged with melancholy. The Black Chair is kept in a sort of shrine-room, dim-lit and cluttered. Around it three or four othereisteddfod chairs stand in attendance, likesacred stools in anAshanti temple..."[6]: 161
Evans lies buried atArtillery Wood Cemetery, nearBoezinge, Belgium.[35] After theArmistice, a petition was submitted to theImperial War Graves Commission and his headstone was given the additional wordsY Prifardd Hedd Wyn ('The Chief Bard, Hedd Wyn').
In the 1921 National Eisteddfod atCaernarfon, Reverend Albert Evans-Jones (Cynan) won the bardic crown for hispryddest,Mab y Bwthyn ("the Cottage Lad"). Cynan was a native ofPwllheli and had served in theRAMC duringWorld War I.[36] Cynan drew for his winningpryddest upon both the poetry ofJohn Masefield and upon his own experiences in theMacedonian front and in the trenches of France.Mab y Bwthyn "tells, in a gushingly romantic, lyrical style how a younggwerinwr, scarred by the horrors of war, turns from the fetid city to seek spiritual renewal in the natural beauty of his home and the love of a pure country girl." Cynan's poem has been called the best-lovedpryddest ever composed during the 20th century and manyWelsh people, according toHywel Teifi Edwards, are still able to recite long passages of it from memory.[7]: 59-60 Alan Llwyd, who has translated part ofMab y Bwthyn into English for the 2008 bookOut of the Fire of Hell: Welsh Experience of the Great War 1914–1918 in Prose and Verse, has argued that Cynan, rather than the far more famousHedd Wyn, is the greatest Welshwar poet.
Plaid Cymru, aWelsh nationalist andsocial democratic political party, was founded during the 1925 National Eisteddfod at Pwllheli, Gwynedd. Inspired by the recentIrish War of Independence,Saunders Lewis,Huw Robert Jones,Lewis Valentine, Moses Griffith, Fred Jones and D. Edmund Williams met in a café called Maes Gwyn[37] with the aim of establishing a "Welsh party".[38] During the meeting, they foundedPlaid Genedlaethol Cymru ("National Party of Wales"), on 5 August 1925.[39] The principal aim of the party would be to foster a Welsh-speaking Wales.[40] To this end it was agreed that party business be conducted in Welsh, and that members must sever all links with other British political parties.[40] Saunders Lewis insisted upon these principles before he would agree to the Pwllheli conference.
At the 1936 National Eisteddfod held atFishguard (Welsh:Abergwaun), the set title for the Bardic Crown wasYr Anialwch ('The Wasteland'), which was almost certainly inspired byT.S. Eliot's famousModernist poem ofthe same name. Instead of copying Eliot, however, Welsh poetDavid Jones (of the bardic name,Dwst y Garreg,transl. 'the desert', or lit., 'stone dust') ofCilfynydd[41] won the Crown[42] with apryddest aboutblack lung disease and the damage it was wreaking upon the coal-mining communities in theSouth Wales valleys.[7]: 60
Reverend Albert Evans-Jones (Cynan) served a term as the Recorder of theGorsedd Cymru in 1935, and another as joint-secretary of the National Eisteddfod Council in 1937.
According to Hywel Teifi Edwards, "TheSecond World War, which plumbed new depths of bestiality culminating in theatomic bomb, put the fear of national extinction in a world-wide context. The Welsh, fighting a long battle for cultural survival, found themselves subsumed, as it were, in a universal army. The cry that went up afterNagasaki and Hiroshima,We are all survivors now!, was easily understood by Welsh writers. At that point, the age-old fight to perpetuate a culture steeped in the Christian tradition was more clearly discerned as the crazymilitarism of the superpowers moved the world ever nearer to the abyss. The loss of Welshness now, far from being a sign ofprogress, would merely conduce to the spread of the uniformity of mind so beloved oftotalitarians everywhere. Such a conviction has served to intensify the fight for the language, for to lose would be to ease the path of those forces that threaten the whole of mankind."[7]: 62
In response to the 1961 census, which showed a radical decrease in the percentage of Welsh speakers,[43]Saunders Lewis gave the famous 1962 radio addressTynged yr iaith ('The Fate of the Language') in which he predicted the imminent extinction of the Welsh language unless immediate action was taken. Lewis hoped to motivatePlaid Cymru into directly fighting for the language. Instead, his address led to the 1962 foundation ofCymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (The Welsh Language Society) at a Plaid Cymru summer school held inPontardawe inGlamorgan.[44]
It has been said[45] that, "of all the memorable phrases coined in the twentieth century none has greater resonance for the Welsh speaker thanTynged yr Iaith . . . which still haunts or inspires champions of the native tongue on the cusp of the new millennium".[46] In 1985, the long-term effects of Saunders Lewis'sTynged yr Iaith were listed by Gwyn Williams:[47] the formation ofCymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg in 1962, direct action againstEnglish-language offices, roadsigns, and TV masts,sit-ins and demonstrations,Welsh-language schools, the 1973 adoption ofadult education in the Welsh language based upon theUlpan system created in theState of Israel for teaching theHebrew language andIsraeli culture to adult immigrants, the 1964 creation of the office ofSecretary of State for Wales, the 1967 passing of theWelsh Language Act, the creation ofS4C, and the mushrooming of Welsh-language publishing, film production,pop and rock, as well as youth and urban music.
Reverend Albert Evans-Jones (Cynan) served as Archdruid twice and is the only person ever to have been elected to that position for a second term. His two terms were from 1950 to 1954 and from 1963 to 1966. He was also the first Archdruid to accept that the Gorsedd is an 18th-century invention by Iolo Morganwg and that it has no links to Welsh mythology or to the ancient Druids, thus healing rifts between the academic and ecclesiastical establishments and the eisteddfod movement.
Cynan is also responsible for designing the modern ceremonies of the crowning and chairing of the bard in the eisteddfod as they are now performed, by creating ceremonies which, he thought, better reflected theChristian beliefs of the Welsh people.[48]
In 1969, Cynan wasknighted byQueen Elizabeth II as part of the honours at theInvestiture of the Prince of Wales for Cynan's services to both Welsh culture and literature. He remains the only Archdruid ever to have been so honoured.[49]
Although it has been held since 1929, the most notable event in the history of the Welsh youth festival known as theUrdd National Eisteddfod took place atAberystwyth, also in 1969.Charles, Prince of Wales was invited, so giving him a public platform from which to address the crowd. It was the same year as his investiture asPrince of Wales, which had outraged manyWelsh nationalists, particularly those with leanings towardsrepublicanism. For this reason, as the Prince arrived on stage, more than one hundred people stood up and walked out in protest. The fallout afterwards was heated and an editorial in the Welsh-language newspaperY Cymro severely angered the director of the Urdd National Eisteddfod.[50]
In a parallel with the simultaneousliterary movement known asNew Formalism inAmerican poetry, the late 20th century witnessed a renaissance in Welsh poetry composed in strict meter, especiallyenglynion andcywyddau. This renaissance is largely inspired by the poetry ofAlan Llwyd. Llwyd, a native ofDolgellau, Gwynedd, first came to prominence with the almost unheard of feat of winning both the chair and the crown at the 1973 National Eisteddfod and then repeating the same feat in 1976.
The 1982 bardic chair was awarded toGerallt Lloyd Owen for theawdlCilmeri, which Hywel Teifi Edwards has called the only 20th-centuryawdl, that matchesT. Gwynn Jones's 1902 masterpieceUmadawiad Arthur ('The Passing of Arthur'). Owen'sCilmeri reimagines the death of PrinceLlywelyn ap Gruffudd of theHouse of Gwynedd in battle nearthe village of that name in 1282, while leading a doomed uprising against theconquest of Wales by Edward I. Owen's poem depicts the Prince as atragic hero and invests his fall with an anguish unmatched sinceGruffudd ab yr Ynad Coch wrote his famous lament for the Prince immediately following his death. Owen also, according to Edwards, encapsulates in the Prince's death the Welsh people's continuing "battle for national survival."[7]: 51-53
In 1999 the centenary of earlyGaelic revival poet andEaster Rising leaderPatrick Pearse's initiation into theGorsedd at the 1899 Pan Celtic Eisteddfod inCardiff (where he took theBardic name of Areithiwr) was marked by the unveiling of a plaque at theConsulate General of theIrish Republic in Wales.[51]
In a ceremony held entirely in the Welsh language during the 2002 National Eisteddfod atSt. David's,Rowan Williams, theAnglicanArchbishop of Wales, was sworn into the Gorsedd as a "White Druid" under the bardic name "Ap Aneurin".[52]
According to Marcus Tanner, "The hour-long ritual, which took place at dawn inside a circle of improvised standing stones, seemed culled from the pages ofTolkien'sThe Lord of the Rings, not least because the more intrusive signs of modern technology, such as loudspeakers, had been concealed beneath wreaths of foliage. After a fanfare of trumpets and the playing of a harp, the Archbishop, dressed in white, laid his hands on a huge sword before being escorted into the heart of thestone circle to meet thehorn of plenty. For all its appeal to antiquity, the rite that the company followed was one Iolo Morganwg would have recognized, since he invented it."[5]: 189
In response to sharp criticisms of Archbishop Williams by the English-language media and otherChristian clergy, "for having taken part in a Pagan ritual", the ArchdruidRobyn Lewis said, "Iolo did create his Gorsedd while fantasizing about Pre-Christian times, but as it developed it rapidly became a mainstream Christian organization."[5]: 189-190
During the2018 National Eisteddfod at Cardiff, the bardic crown was awarded to poet andWelsh nationalistCatrin Dafydd, born inGwaelod y Garth, for her collectionOlion ("Traces"). Her poems explored Welsh identity in the multiracial and multiethnicGrangetown district ofCardiff.[53][54]
During the ceremony, however, the Archdruid,Geraint Llifon, caused considerable outrage amongfeminists when he alleged that Catrin Dafydd could not have won the Crown without the help of men. After this caused him to be accused ofsexism, Archdruid Llifon apologized.[55]
The most important is the National Eisteddfod of Wales, the largest festival of competitive music and poetry in Europe. Its eight days of competitions and performances, entirely in the Welsh language, are staged annually in the first week of August in varying locations that usually alternate between north and south Wales.[56] Competitors typically number 6,000 or more; overall attendances generally exceed 150,000 visitors.[57]
Another important eisteddfod in the calendar isEisteddfod Yr Urdd or the Youth Eisteddfod. Organised byUrdd Gobaith Cymru, it involves young Welsh people from nursery age to 25 in a week of competition in singing,recitation, dancing, acting and musicianship during the summer half-term school holiday. The event is claimed to be Europe's premier youth arts festival.[58] Regional heats are held in advance and, as with the National Eisteddfod, the Urdd Eisteddfod is held in a different location each year. With the establishment of the Urdd headquarters in theWales Millennium Centre, the eisteddfod will return toCardiff every four years.
The International Eisteddfod is held annually inLlangollen, Denbighshire, each year in July. Choirs, singing groups,folk dancers and other groups attend from all over the world, sharing their national folk traditions in one of the world's great festivals of the arts. It was set up in 1947 and begins with a message of peace. In 2004, it was (unsuccessfully) nominated for theNobel Peace Prize byTerry Waite, who has been actively involved with the eisteddfod.
Smaller-scale local eisteddfodau are held throughout Wales. One of the best known is the Maes Garmon Eisteddfod,Mold (Welsh:Eisteddfod Ysgol Maes Garmon, Wyddgrug). Schools hold eisteddfodau as competitions within the school; a popular date for this isSaint David's Day.
Welsh emigration, particularly during the heyday of theBritish Empire andBritish industrial revolution,[59] led to the creation of a globalWelsh diaspora. Among the elements from Welsh culture that travelled with these émigrés was the eisteddfod, which – in a variety of forms and languages – continues to exist worldwide.
According to Marcus Tanner, the massive 19th-centuryWelsh immigration toY Wladfa ("the Colony"), in theChubut Province of ArgentinePatagonia began out of the desire of minister andWelsh nationalistMichael D. Jones for "a Little Wales beyond Wales". As both cultural assimilation andlanguage loss were already taking hold among theWelsh diaspora throughout theUnited States and even more so inCanada and other parts of theBritish Empire, Patagonia was chosen as an alternative.[60]
While visitingPuerto Madryn, the main arrival point for immigrants, during the mid-1970s,Bruce Chatwin wrote, "A hundred and fifty-three Welsh colonists landed here off thebrigMimosa in 1865. They were poor people in search of a New Wales, refugees from cramped coal-mining valleys, from a failed independence movement, and fromParliament's ban onWelsh in schools. Their leaders had combed the earth for a stretch of open country uncontaminated by Englishmen. They chosePatagonia for its absolute remoteness and foul climate; they did not want to get rich. The Argentine Government gave them land along theChubut River (Welsh:Afon Camwy). From Madryn it was a stretch of forty miles over the thorn desert. And when they did reach the valley, they had the impression that God, not the Government, had given them the land."[61]
Although eisteddfodau have been held in Argentina ever since the first Welsh immigrants arrived aboard theMimosa in 1865, assimilation and the loss of contact with the homeland caused both the distinctivePatagonian dialect of theWelsh language and the eisteddfod tradition to be seriously endangered.
In 1965, Welsh people again began to visit the region to celebrate the colony's centenary. The visit acted as a major impetus to the increasingly assimilated localWelsh Argentine community and since then the number of Welsh visitors and learners of the language has increased.[62][5]: 340-341
Bruce Chatwin visitedGaiman in 1976, which he called "the centre of Welsh Patagonia today".[63] While atTy-Ysaf, the homestead of the Davies family, he was told how the family's son, Euan Davies, had sung at the local eisteddfod while accompanied by Anselmo, a local aspiring concert pianist of mixedGerman andItalian parentage. Davies's tenor voice and Anselmo's piano playing reportedly reduced the audience at the eisteddfod to tears and "carried off the prize."[64]
Marcus Tanner has written since of Chatwin's travel memoirIn Patagonia, "After several decades during which the Welsh colony in Argentina had been virtually forgotten, his book did much to remind the world of its existence."[65] According to Eluned Gonzalez, however, a localWelsh Argentine who remembers the real Chatwin and his visit, "We are all very surprised by the book... so superior. Looking down on us... a veryEnglish way of looking at things."[66]
During the British government'srepatriation of the 11,313ArgentinePOWs taken during the 1982Falklands War, Welsh-speaking British merchant seamen and British soldiers from theWelsh Guards were shocked to find themselves addressed in Patagonian Welsh by an Argentine POW who was on the way home to Puerto Madryn.[67] Over the years since, close ties between Wales andY Wladfa have been reestablished.
One of the greatest Welsh literary figures to come out ofY Wladfa wasRichard Bryn Williams, whose bardic name wasBryn. Williams was born atBlaenau Ffestiniog,Gwynedd in 1902. When he was seven years old, Williams's family migrated toTrelew, as part of the last great wave of Welsh immigration toY Wladfa prior to theFirst World War. Williams returned to Wales in 1923 and studied at theUniversity College of North Wales. He became an expert on Patagonian history and was a major contributor to the Colony's Welsh literature. Williams won the Bardic Chair at the National Eisteddfod of Wales in both 1964 and 1968, and from 1975 to 1978 he served as Archdruid of theGorsedd Cymru.[68][69]
A 2001BBC article described in detail the recent visit to Chubut Province by ArchdruidMeirion Evans [cy] and 30 members of theGorsedd Cymru to revive theGorsedd yr Wladfa in a ceremony held in a specially constructedstone circle near Gaiman.
BBC reporters also attended the 2001Eisteddfod del Chubut at Trelew and watched as the bardic chair was awarded for the first time inY Wladfa to a female poet: Gaiman hotel owner Monica Jones de Jones, for anawdl on the subject ofrhyddid ('freedom'). The article's author continued, "the Patagonia Eisteddfod itself, while sharing those elements common to eisteddfodau in Wales itself, nonetheless is, in other respects, quite a different affair. As well as hauntingWelsh folk tunes, and recitations in the unique Spanish-accented Welsh of the Patagonians, there are also rousing displays of Argentinian folk dancing which owe everything to theculture of thegauchos and nothing to the somewhat tamer dance routines of the Welsh homeland."[70]
While visiting Patagonia to research his 2004 bookThe Last of the Celts, Marcus Tanner visited the Trelew home of local Welsh-language poetGeraint Edmunds. Edmunds was, according to Tanner, "a Welsh Patagonian of the old type, as fluent in Welsh as Spanish". During Tanner's visit, he noticed that "a beautifully made Bardic Chair", which Geraint Edmunds's poetry had won was on reverent display in the front room. To Tanner's disappointment, however, the bard's son, Eduardo Edmunds, would speak only Spanish and replied when asked about his ancestral language, "I think I'd rather learn English – more useful."[5]: 341
SinceWelsh devolution, however, theWelsh Parliament in Cardiff has provided both funding and teachers to joint Welsh-Spanish immersion schools, such asYsgol yr Hendre, in Chubut Province.[71]
Current eisteddfod competitions are bilingual, in both Patagonian Welsh andArgentine Spanish, and include poetry, prose,literary translations (Welsh, Spanish, English, Italian, and French), musical performances, arts, folk dances, photography, and filmmaking, among others. TheEisteddfoddel Juventud is held every September at Gaiman. The mainEisteddfoddel Chubut is held every October at Trelew. Other annual eisteddfodau are held atTrevelin, in theAndes and at Puerto Madryn along the South Atlantic coast.[72]
Eisteddfods (plural form of "eisteddfod" inAustralian English, instead of "eisteddfodau") in the traditional Welsh sense have also been adopted into Australian culture. However, the term is more commonly used to describe ballet and music competitions.
For those eisteddfods most like the Welsh original, they involve testing individuals in singing, dancing, acting and musicianship.
After emigrating to Australia fromTregaron,Ceredigion, at the tail end of theVictorian gold rush, Welsh poet anddiaristJoseph Jenkins, whose bardic name was Amnon II, arrived atMelbourne in 1869. The following month, as described in his posthumously published memoirThe Diary of a Welsh Swagman, Jenkins was living in the gold rush boomtown ofCastlemaine where he found many fellow Welsh Australians. He rarely left this vicinity except to attend the annualSt David's Dayeisteddfod atBallarat where, on thirteen consecutive occasions, he was awarded first prize for the bestenglyn.[73]
The successor to the St. David's Day Eisteddfod inBallarat, theRoyal South Street Eisteddfod, began in 1891 and has been running ever since.[74]
The second-oldest eisteddfod in Australia is located inWollongong, theCity of Wollongong Eisteddfod, which began in 1894 and has been running ever since.[75]
TheSydney Eisteddfod was first held in 1933[76] and offers some 400 events across all performing arts, catering to 30,000 performers annually.
Modern eisteddfods in Australia are competitions reserved for schoolchildren, though many have open sections where anyone (including professionals) may participate and compete. Typically, a prize may be a scholarship to pursue a further career. Many young Australian actors and dancers participate regularly in the various competitions scheduled throughout the year. TheWestern Australia Performing Arts Eisteddfod began in 1958 as theBunbury Music Festival.[77] TheGold Coast Eisteddfod inQueensland began in 1982 and is held annually in August and September. The 2018 eisteddfod attracted over 60,000 competitors.[78] Many other communities also host eisteddfods, includingAlice Springs,Darwin,Brisbane,Hobart andMelbourne.
TheGuernsey Eisteddfod was founded in 1922 and includes events in theGuernésiais language;[79] theJersey Eisteddfod was founded in 1908 and includes events inJèrriais dialect ofNorman French.[80]
Eisteddfodau are held across the UK, although in most cases any explicit link to Welsh culture has been lost beyond the use of the name for an arts festival or competition.
In 1897 aForest of Dean Eisteddfod, reportedly a choral competition, was founded atCinderford.[81]
In theMethodist Church and othernon-conformist denominations in England, youth cultural festivals are sometimes called eisteddfod. TheKettering and District Eisteddfod, for example, was founded in the early 1900s in theNorthamptonshire town by members of theSunday School Union and still runs every March.[82]
TheBristol Festival of Music, Speech and Drama was founded in 1903 as the Bristol Eisteddfod.[83]
TheMinsterley Eisteddfod has been held every March in SouthShropshire since 1962.[84]
TheTeesside International Eisteddfod (Intertie) inMiddlesbrough[85][86] ran from 1966 to 1978.[citation needed]
For many years Teignmouth Grammar School inTeignmouth, Devonshire, held an eisteddfod of art, music and drama competitions in the Easter term.[citation needed]
InSouth African English, a number of international performing arts competitions in are called eisteddfods, such as theTygerberg International Eisteddfod and thePretoria Eisteddfod (first held in 1923). The wordeisteddfod is sometimes also used for ordinary cultural festivals, even if only one school's students participate.
In August 1953, the poetIngrid Jonker, who would go on to become ananti-apartheidpolitical dissident and a hugely influential figure inAfrikaans literature, recited her poems at the Cape Eisteddfod inCape Town and received there a Diploma for Achievement inAfrikaans.[87]
Moving first as religious refugees and then as farmers and industrial workers, many thousands of Welsh people emigrated to America from the 17th century.
In 1757, ReverendGoronwy Owen, anAnglican vicar born atY Dafarn Goch, in the parish ofLlanfair Mathafarn Eithaf inAnglesey and the poet most responsible for the subsequent Welsh eighteenth-century renaissance,[88] emigrated toWilliamsburg, in theColony of Virginia. Until his death on his cotton and tobacco plantation nearLawrenceville, Virginia in 1769, Owen was mostly noted as an émigré bard, writing withhiraeth ('longing') for his nativeAnglesey. During the subsequent revival of the eisteddfod, theGwyneddigion Society held up the poetry of Owen as an example for bards at future eisteddfodau to emulate.
During the eisteddfod revival of the 1790s, Gwyneddigion Society memberWilliam Jones, who had enthusiastically supported theAmerican Revolution and who was arguing for the creation of a National Eisteddfod of Wales, had come to believe that the completelyAnglicizedWelsh nobility, throughrackrenting and their employment of unscrupulous land agents, had forfeited all right to the obedience and respect of their tenants. At theLlanrwst eisteddfod in June 1791, Jones distributed copies of an address, entitledTo all Indigenous Cambro-Britons, in which he urged Welsh tenant farmers and craftsmen to pack their bags, emigrate from Wales, and sail for what he called the "Promised Land" in the United States of America.[89]
By 1851,Y Drych ('The Mirror'), published from the Welsh-speaking settlement inUtica, New York[5]: 325 was just the latest of a number of Welsh-language newspapers, and in 1872Hanes Cymry America ('A history of the Welsh in America') by R.D. Thomas attempted to catalogue all of the Welsh communities of the United States. Eisteddfodau in North America are thought to have started in the 1830s,[90] though the earliest documented examples date from the 1840s and, especially, the 1850s.[91] Efforts to introduce the Gorsedd into the United States, on the other hand, were less successful and never attracted more than 303 members.[92]
According toCelticist Gethin Matthews, "Next to the chapels, the Eisteddfod was the most potent symbol of Welshexceptionalism in America. As such, the success of each locality's eisteddfod became a status symbol within the diaspora: something to boast about in the pages ofY Drych, or one of the other periodicals[91] ... There is also a strong link between the eisteddfod tradition and the printed word, with thirty-three publications (from 8 to 464 pages in length) being the fruit of such festivals. Although most of them were published in Utica (which became the hub of the Welsh-American publishing business), they represent the output of eisteddfodau in a wide range of location, including settlements far from the eastern seaboard such asRacine,Denver, andSan Francisco."[93]
According to Marcus Tanner, large-scale Welsh immigration to America began in the 1790s, when 50 immigrants left the village ofLlanbrynmair for a tract ofPennsylvania land purchased byBaptist ministerMorgan John Rhys. The result was theWelsh-American farming settlement ofCambria, Pennsylvania.[5]: 325
By 1913, a sub-gorsedd of North America with a vice-Archdruid, Reverend Thomas Edwards whose bardic name was Cynonfardd, was established at thePittsburgh Eisteddfod, surviving until 1946.[94]
The Edwardsville Cynonfardd Eisteddfod at the Dr. Edwards Memorial Church inEdwardsville, Pennsylvania has taken place annually since 1889 and is the longest continuously running eisteddfod outside of Wales. The 130th anniversary of the event was celebrated in April 2019.[95]
Welsh-American settlements inOhio began in 1801, when a group of Welsh-speaking pioneers migrated fromCambria, Pennsylvania to Paddy's Run, which is now the site ofShandon, Ohio.[5]: 325
According to Marcus Tanner, "In Ohio State,Jackson andGallia counties in particular became a 'Little Wales', where Welsh settlers were sufficiently thick on the ground by the 1830s to justify the establishment ofCalvinistic Methodistsynods."[5]: 325
As late as 1900, Ohio still had 150 Welsh-speaking church congregations.[5]: 326 The Welsh language was commonly spoken there for generations until the 1950s when its use began to subside. As of 2010, more than 126,000 Ohioans are of Welsh descent and about 135 speak the language,[96][97] with significant concentrations still found in many communities of Ohio such asOak Hill (13.6%),Madison (12.7%),Franklin (10.5%),Jackson (10.0%),Radnor (9.8%), andJefferson (9.7%).[98]
The Jackson School Eisteddfod in Jackson, Ohio, is the result of an historically strong Welsh-American business community, who funded the Southern Ohio Eisteddfod Association and a 4,000-seat auditorium that was the only dedicated eisteddfod venue in the United States. In 1930, the hall hosted the Grand National Eisteddfod. While theGreat Depression halted the adult events, a youth eisteddfod, founded in 1924, still runs today, with support from the Madog Center for Welsh Studies atUniversity of Rio Grande.[99][100]
After theTreaty of Traverse des Sioux was signed by theDakota people in 1851, Welsh-speaking pioneers fromWisconsin,Upstate New York, and Ohio settled much of what is nowLe Sueur andBlue Earth counties inMinnesota. By 1857, the number of Welsh-speakers was so numerous that theMinnesota State Constitution had to be translated into the Welsh language.[5]: 325 With such a large number of settlers, it should come as no surprise that eisteddfodau soon followed.[101]
Local Welsh-language poetJames Price, whose bardic name wasAp Dewi ('Son of David'), was born atNewark, Ohio to parents fromLlanon,Ceredigion.[102]: 254 After migrating to the Minnesota frontier, Ap Dewi served as a deacon andSunday school teacher at theHoreb Calvinistic Methodist Church inCambria Township, Blue Earth County[2]: 64 and was so dominant at local eisteddfodau that he was considered the "prifardd of Minnesota."[2]: 138
The first Welsh literary society in Minnesota was founded, according to Ap Dewi, at a meeting held inSouth Bend Township, also in Blue Earth County in the fall of 1855.[103]: 129 Also according to Ap Dewi, "The first eisteddfod in the state of Minnesota was held inJudson in the house of Wm. C. Williams in 1864. The second eisteddfod was held in Judson in the log chapel in 1866 with the Rev. John Roberts as chairman. Ellis E. Ellis, Robert E. Hughes, H.H. Hughes, Rev. J. Jenkins, and William R. Jones took part in this eisteddfod. The third eisteddfod was held in Judson in the new chapel (Jerusalem) on January 2, 1871. The famous Llew Llwyfo (bardic name) was chairman and a splendid time was had."[103]: 131
According to David M. Jones, a Calvinistic Methodist minister born at Ty Rhedyn, nearMarian-glas,Anglesey and Welsh-language writer whose literary talents drew comparisons withWashington Irving,[102]: 215-216 the first eisteddfod held in Cambria Township took place on theFourth of July, 1871. A "low-lying site behind the house of John Shields" was chosen for theMaes and, as Jones later recalled, "We cut tiers of seats into a natural bank of land and covered the seats with hay. These were the first seats with cushions we had ever seen in Minnesota, and everyone praised them. We built a platform in front of the seats. There was a clear stream running between the platform and the seats. All of us felt that our fine preparations would ensure the success of the program. On the morning of the Fourth, everyone was ready long before the Minnesota sun appeared. In a little while, there were clouds of dust being stirred up by large wagons coming from every direction. The immense prairie was dotted with wagons drawn by horses,mules, and hornedoxen. Long before the time, the seats were full."[2]: 139-140
Ellis Ellis, aMankatojoiner fromAberdyfi, Merionethshire and whose bardic name was Glan Dyfi (after thevillage of the same name),[102]: 184-185 was, according to Jones, "the adjudicator for the poetry, and it is more than likely that Ap Dewi won the prize. What the subject was, we do not recall, though it is likely that there was a subject. Not often did a Bard compose without a subject. Evan Evans, Daniel Jones, and W.P. Jones must have competed in the essay competition, adjudicated by the cultured David S. Davies. In the humorous address competition, Evan Evans and Henry Hughes were both winners. There were various recitations by Owen Morris and Thomas Hughes, who were masterly as usual, among others. John S. Davies and his group sang several pieces, and the singers of Bethel also took part. Owen Richards and his brother, Tomy Richards, took part in the first eisteddfod. Johnnie Jones from the same district turned out to be skillful at recitation. Before the end of the last meeting one of the Minnesota storms came on, and the audience scattered in a moment."[2]: 141
According to Ap Dewi, local eisteddfodau began being held in thecounty seat ofMankato on 1 January 1873, when one took place at theBlue Earth County Courthouse.[2]: 131
During the same era, a group of Welsh-language poets used to meet regularly under the leadership of Ellis Ellis (Glan Dyfi) at the Cheshire and Jones Shop in Mankato, where the packing paper in the shop was often used to write downenglynion in Welsh.[2]: 142-143
David Jones later expressed a belief that theenglynion composed at the Cheshire and Jones Shop were superior to those of far more famous Welsh poets such as Dewi Wyn,Dewi Havhesp, andDyfed.[2]: 142 Jones further recalled, "Glan Dyfi never had any more enjoyment than when tinkering with the elements ofenglynion, tossing off so manyenglynion while taking no notice ofthe rules ofDafydd ab Edmwnd or anyother Dafydd. O! To have those old times back again."[2]: 143
Beginning in 1874, eisteddfodau were held annually at the Union Hall in Mankato until 1876, when the custom fell into abeyance until 1890. The 1890 eisteddfod was held on 5 February at the Mankato Opera House, under the leadership of Thomas Hughes and continued there.[2]: 131-136
By the 1880s between 2,500 and 3,000 people of Welsh background in Minnesota were contributing to the life of some 17 churches and 22 chapels.[104]
The first eisteddfod held in theTwin Cities took place, "on a fairly large scale", and sponsored by the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist chapel onFranklin Avenue inMinneapolis, on 17 January 1885.[2]: 210-211
A second Minneapolis eisteddfod was held, with the participation of adjudicators and contestants fromSt. Paul, Minnesota,Lime Springs, Iowa, andCambria, Wisconsin, on Christmas Day, 1888.[2]: 211
A third Minneapolis eisteddfod was held, under the patronage of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist chapel andY Wyddorfa, the Welsh literary society of Minneapolis, onSt. David's Day, 1894. Adjudicated contests were held for essays, recitations, poetry,literary translations, and performances.[2]: 211-213
According to a 2006 article in theMankato Free Press the custom of local eisteddfodau went into abeyance during the 1950s. An effort was made, however, during the early 21st century, to revive the tradition by the Blue Earth County Historical Society and the Mankato Chapter of theLeague of Minnesota Poets. During the 2006 Cambria eisteddfod at theMorgan Creek Vineyards inNew Ulm,Brainerd poet Doris Stengel was awarded the bardic chair by adjudicator John Calvin Rezmerski.[105]
But, following Rezmerski's death in 2016, the custom of local eisteddfodau again fell into abeyance.
Competitive eisteddfod were held during theAmerican Civil War, with themes includingGeorge Washington,Abraham Lincoln,American patriotism, andJefferson Davis.[106]
Also during the American Civil War,Edward Thomas, a Welsh-language poet born inCenterville, Ohio to parents fromLlanidloes and whose bardic name wasAwenydd, was living and working as a schoolmaster at the Welsh-American farming settlement atSouth Bend Township, in Blue Earth County, Minnesota. In 1862, he enlisted in Company E of the2nd Minnesota Cavalry Regiment. During his service in that regiment, Thomas wrote many Welsh-language poems, includingPryddest ar Wir Fawredd, which later won the bardic crown at an eisteddfod held inMinersville, Pennsylvania. Following the end of the war, Thomas became a Calvinistic Methodist minister.[102]: 273
Mrs. Jennie A. Ingalls, the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. H.O. Roberts of Minneapolis, won a prize for best recitation at an 1890 eisteddfod held in Chicago, Illinois.[2]: 213
The largest U.S. eisteddfod was held in 1893 at theWorld Columbian Exposition in Chicago,[107] featuring visiting Welsh choirs invited by the Chicago chapter of theCymmrodorion Society.[108] TheMormon Tabernacle Choir, which then included a large number of Welsh immigrants, made its first appearance outside ofUtah at the same event.[109] At the same eisteddfod, ReverendEvan Reese, a Calvinistic Methodist minister fromPuncheston, Pembrokeshire, and Welsh poet whose bardic name was Dyfed, won the bardic chair and the $500 prize money offered for a 2,000 lineawdl on the set subjectIesu o Nazareth ('Jesus ofNazareth').[7]: 31 Reese went on to become theArchdruid of theGorsedd Cymru and to announce the posthumous victory of Hedd Wyn at the infamous 1917 Eisteddfod of the Black Chair.[34]
The eisteddfod idea has been retained by some subsequentworld's fairs, and has helped to link the Welsh eisteddfod community to its Welsh-American offshoot.
The first Eisteddfod in theState of California was organized byThomas Gwallter Price, whose Bardic name was "Cuhelyn", and took place inNorth San Juan on July 4, 1860.[91]
On 28 July 1915, the International Eisteddfod held in San Francisco at thePanama–Pacific International Exposition drew competing choirs from around the nation, including one mixed group composed of the German members of theMetropolitan Opera Chorus from New York City The tightly rehearsed, all-male Orpheus Club of Los Angeles were judged the winner and were awarded $3,000.[110]
In 1926, thePasadena Playhouse inPasadena, California, held a competitive eisteddfod of one-act plays by local authors that subsequently evolved into an annual SummerOne-Act Play Festival.
The 2011 West Coast Eisteddfod event was co-curated byLorin Morgan-Richards and held at theBarnsdall Art Park in Los Angeles, the site of Welsh-American architectFrank Lloyd Wright'sHollyhock House, nearGriffith Park, founded by Welsh-American philanthropistGriffith J. Griffith.[111]
From 1925 to 2016, theLos Angeles St. David's Day Festival was the largest Welsh-American cultural event in the United States. It included an eisteddfod, aCeltic marketplace, classes, and a concert.[112] Celebrities of Welsh heritageHenry Thomas,Ioan Gruffudd,Michael Sheen, along withRichard Burton's and Frank Lloyd Wright's families have all publicly supported the festival.[113]
The West Coast Eisteddfod (originally the Left Coast Eisteddfod) was founded by Welsh-American social networkAmeriCymru and the non-profitPortland, Oregon, Meriwether Lewis Memorial Eisteddfod Foundation in 2009.[114]
Welsh Heritage Week[115] andCwrs Cymraeg,[116] two ambulatory Welsh language and culture courses held annually, usually in the United States, also each feature a mini-eisteddfod. The North American Festival of Wales held by the Welsh North American Association also includes an eisteddfod.[117]
In the 21st century the internet and social media helped new eisteddfodau to spring up. For example, AmeriCymru hosts an annual online eisteddfod.[118]
Various festivals in other Celtic cultures have similarities to eisteddfodau.
According to Marcus Tanner, even though theBreton people have never faced the dire poverty or mass starvation once commonly risked amongIrish language speakers,[119]efforts to preserve theBreton language and itsliterature have traditionally faced anantagonist with a radically different political ideology than speakers ofCeltic languages in theBritish Isles. Since the 1789French Revolution andReign of Terror, mainstreamrepublicanism in France has embraced policies ofSecularisation,centralizing government power inParis, andcoerciveFrancization through the State-controlled educational system.[120]
Despite its long history of hostility to religious practice, Marcus Tanner has written that traditional French republicanism is ironically "a Messianic ideology". In an early 21st century interview with Marcus Tanner,Ronan Le Coadic [fr] explained that post-1789 French Governments have successfully sold theFrench language as, "the language of progress" and have taughtminority language speakers that, "All others were the languages of theChurch and thenobility. Children were taught that Breton was the language of poverty and the past. Even recently I have interviewed people who recalled their shame at school for knowing Breton."[121]
In contrast, ever sincePope Gregory XI issued therègle d'idiom ("the rule of idiom") in 1373, Roman Catholic clergy were commanded to learn how to preach to and communicate with their flocks in thevernacular. This is also why, ever since theFrench Revolution, the traditionalproverb in theBreton language (Breton:"Ar brezonek hag ar feiz, A zo breur ha c'hoar e Breiz") ("Breton and [the] Faith are brother and sister in Brittany"), was once commonly quoted.[122]
Believers in Bretoncultural nationalism have, for these reasons, often beendissidents who criticized or opposed at least some elements of French Republican ideology. This is also why efforts to introduce a form of the Eisteddfod into the Bretonlanguage revival date from the immediate aftermath of the Revolution.
Even though the neo-bardic,Gorsedd, and Eisteddfod movement in Brittany was founded during the early 19th century byAuguste Brizeux, the real heyday of the movement took place between 1900 and the outbreak of theFirst World War. Those two decades were dominated byFrançois Jaffrenou, whosebardic name was Taldir, and who introduced manyIolo Morganwg-inspired elements ofWelsh culture intoBreton culture andliterature. During those decades, Taldir founded theGorsedd Barzed Gourenez Breiz Isel (TheGorsedd ofBards of the Peninsula of Brittany) and did much to encourage both traditional Celtic poetry and a sense of community among Breton Bards.[123]
In 1936,Morvan Marchal founded the explicitly anti-Christian andneo-PaganKredenn Geltiek Hollvedel (World Celtic Creed) group, of which he became the first arch-Druid. The group broke openly from the Goursez Vreizh.
Meanwhile, following theLiberation of France, the Government of the newly foundedFourth French Republic launched a propaganda campaign that still continues. It attempted to discredit all activism in favor of Breton cultural andlanguage revival, politicaldevolution, andBreton-medium education by depicting it as synonymous with treason andcollaboration withNazism. This has proven to be far from successful.[124][125][126][127]
Pêr-Jakez Helias, who was both aWorld War II veteran of theFrench Resistance and a major figure inBreton literature, later recalled in his memoirs the massive public backlash androots revival this provoked and his own role in it, "As soon as World War II ended, 'Celtic Clubs' were being founded everywhere in Brittany, but especially in the Breton-speaking regions. The members were young people whose objective was to bring the peasant tradition, with all its costumes, its dances, and its games back into esteem. Within ten years several hundred of these groups had been organized. At the same time, thanks to the persistence of a few pioneers, other young people began to take lessons from the last of the professionalbagpipers andoboeists, who were ending their lives in a state of melancholy... Think of thousands of young people involved in traditional art forms at a time when their traditions were both alive and threatened, perhaps even doomed, and faced with a new society which they couldn't count on in any way. How could they possibly not have protested?"[128]
Since 1923, theFestival de Cornouaille (Breton:Cornouaille Kemper) has taken place annually inQuimper, located in the south-west of Brittany. It began as a beauty contest during which one girl was crowned as festival queen, which drew firm objections from the Catholic Church during its post-World War II revival in 1948. TheCornouaille Kemper was accordingly transformed by Pêr-Jakez Helias,François Bégot andJo Halleguen into an Eisteddfod-inspired summer festival celebratingBreton culture,mythology, literature, and traditional music.[129]
The similarKan ar Bobl competition, which is held as part of theFestival Interceltique de Lorient, supports theBreton music tradition.
TheAberFest inCornwall alternates with theBreizh – Kernow Festival which is held either inBrandivy orBignan in Brittany.
InCornwall, an analogous event is known asEsedhvos Kernow (Cornish for 'Eisteddfod of Cornwall') and is connected, as part of the ongoingCornish language revival, with theGorsedh Kernow.[130]
AberFest is a festival that celebrates bothCornish andBreton culture and takes place in Cornwall every second year around Easter.
A similar tradition has been created among descendants of theCornish diaspora in Australia. "Australia's Little Cornwall" is the district of theYorke Peninsula inSouth Australia known as theCopper Triangle, which includes the former mining towns ofMoonta,Kadina andWallaroo. In Moonta today, theKernewek Lowender (Cornish for 'Cornish Happiness'), which includes an eisteddfod-like gathering of bards, is the largest Cornish festival in the world and attracts more than 40,000 visitors each event.[131] The Cornish language revival has also spread to theCornish diaspora and is spoken by some enthusiasts in Australia.[132] Senior members of theGorsedh Kernow make frequent visits to Australia, and there are a number ofCornish Australianbards.[133]
During the days ofGaelic Ireland and of theIrish clans, there was a tradition similar to the first eisteddfodau.Irish clan chiefs would host feasts for their clansmen, servants, and warriors which centered around a contest betweenIrish-language bards, whose poetry was performed by professional singers accompanied by aharp. As in 12th-century Wales, the clan chief always chose the winner with the approval of those assembled. This tradition, which arose during the 14th century, was termed aGairm Sgoile (Early Modern Irish: 'summoning', or 'gathering', 'of the [Bardic] school').[134]
This title referred to the fact that Irish language bards were trained in the dark at special bardic schools (Irish:Sgoile) based on the principle of memorization ofIrish bardic poetry and stories aboutthe deities ofIrish mythology. Irish bards and their students were expected[135][136] to compose their verses lying down and in the dark, "to avoid the distraction which light and the variety of objects represented commonly occasions" and to concentrate solely, "upon the subject at hand and the theme given".[137]
The most famous gathering of the bardic school took place on Christmas Day, 1351.William Ua Cellaig,Chief of the Name andKing ofUí Maine inConnacht, held, like PrinceRhys ap Gruffydd, a great competition and feast for the bards of Ireland. An entire temporary village was erected with separate streets for musicians,seanchaithe, poets, and jugglers.
The traditionalConnacht Irish phrase,"Fáilte Uí Cheallaigh" ("An O'Kelly Welcome") dates from this event, which was held at Gailey Castle alongLough Ree, near what is nowKnockcroghery,County Roscommon.[138][139] The feast reportedly lasted for a month.[140] It was during this feast that the poet,Gofraidh Fionn Ó Dálaigh, wrote the poem,Filidh Éireann go hAointeach, which remembers the feast.[141][142]
After the 16th and 17th century dispossession,emigration, andoutlawry of the Irish clan chiefs and the loss of theirpatronage, the teachers and former students of the bardic schools were forced to adapt.
According toVivian Mercier, "It is not enough to say that theGaelic-speaking aristocracy were dispossessed of their lands: the poets themselves were landholders, a sort ofNoblesse de robe, whose dispossession accompanied or followed that of theNoblesse d'épée. The overthrow of thebardic institution was accompanied by a change in poetic technique which enables one to judge with considerable accuracy whether a given poem belongs to the bardic period or not: syllabic metre (dán díreach) gives way to stress or song metre (amhrán). This change reflects not only the gradual disappearance of the bardic schools but also of the bardic audience; most authorities believe that the stress metres had been common among the common people for a long time before poems in those metres were granted the dignity of being committed to manuscript. If the dispossessed and often starving poet wanted the favour of his new patrons - those who were only less poor than he - he must cater to their tastes."[143]
The bards overwhelmingly adapted, according toDaniel Corkery, by becoming teachers at thehedge schools in Irish villages.[144]: 68-94
Meanwhile, in 18th-centuryMunster, the custom arose, in what was both mimicry and satire of the ceremonial of the English-dominated legal and court system, of the localchief-bard presiding over sessions of acúirt, or poetic court. Acúirt would begin with "bailiffs" delivering often humorously worded "warrants" which summoned local Irish-language poets to a bardic competition presided over by the chief-bard as "judge". In many cases, two poets at thecúirt would engage inflyting[144]: 95-125 (Classical Gaelic:immarbág) (Irish:iomarbháigh) (lit. "counter-boasting"),[145] meaning the trading of insults in verse often improvised on the spot. According to Corkery, much of the serious, improvised, andcomic poetry in the Irish language composed for sessions of the Munster poetic courts was written down by the court "recorders" and still survives.[144]: 95-125 At the beginning of his term, the Chief-Poet of a district, similarly to an Irish clan chief, would receive aStaff of Office (Irish:Bata na Bachaille), which would later be handed down to his successor.[146]
Also according to Corkery, the patronage of Bardic and musical contests also continued among the very few remaining families from theGaelic nobility of Ireland; like theO'Connell family ofDerrynane House in County Kerry and theMacDermotPrinces of Coolavin in County Sligo, who continued to hold at least a part of their ancestral lands, while ruling over their tenants and servants as the Chief of the Name.[144]: 42-67
At least for a time, someAnglo-Irish landlords hosted similar contests. During the early 18th century, Irish-language poet, composer, and itinerant harpistTurlough O'Carolan is said to have improvisedCarolan's Concerto inside the house of the Anglo-Irish Power family, during such a contest against the Italian violinistFrancesco Geminiani. According to other versions of the story, the contest that resulted in the impromptu composition ofCarolan's Concerto took place at the home ofChurch of Ireland clergyman, poet, and satiristJonathan Swift.
Since it was founded as part of theGaelic revival byConradh na Gaeilge in 1897, the eisteddfod-inspired festival known asOireachtas na Gaeilge was envisaged to spearhead a renaissance of Irish-language literature, culture, and the arts.[147]
In contrast to today's Oireachtas, there was more emphasis onModern literature in Irish than uponIrish traditional music or theperforming arts. There were two competitions forIrish poetry, five forIrish languageessays, one for best poetry collection; a competition for unpublished songs or short stories in Irish; a competition for best new song composition, and a recitation competition.
The early organizers of Oireachtas pulled off several major accomplishments, such as the first staging ofRobert O'Dwyer'sEithne, the first Irish-languageopera, in 1909. Even so, the popularity of Oireachtas waned following theIrish War of Independence and the subsequentIrish Civil War, and the festival was repeatedly cancelled during the 1920s and 1930s.
The festival was traditionally held inDublin, but, beginning in 1974,Coiste Cearta Síbialta na Gaeilge (English: Irish Language Civil Rights Committee") successfully coerced an end to the practice of never holding Oireachtas in Ireland'sGaeltacht areas.[148][149][150]
Oireachtas currently culminates in four major competitions over the weekend: Comórtas na mBan, asean-nós singing competition for women, Comórtas na bhFear, a similar one for men, andCorn Uí Riada, one for both genders and all ages. There is also the Comórtas Damhsa ar an Sean Nós ("Steip"), aSean-nós dance competition mainly based on theConnemarastepdancing style now popular throughout the country, but also including dancing in other regional styles.
The organisers, under the Directorship of Liam Ó Maolaodha have attempted from the 1990s on to market Oireachtas tomillennial Irish speakers via outings, discos, and other youth-oriented events.
Since it was also founded by Conradh na Gaeilge in 1902,Seachtain na Gaeilge (English: Irish Language Week), which is similarly based upon the Welsh eisteddfod, has celebratedIrish traditional music,Gaelic games, andIrish culture.
The festival begins each year onSt David's Day and ends onSt Patrick's Day,[151] withcommunity-organised events celebrated all over Ireland and the world, such ascéilís, concerts, quizzes, competitions and parades.[152] Like the first documented 12th-century eisteddfod, the 14th-centuryGairm Sgoile and the 18th-centuryMunsterCúirt,Seachtain na Gaeilge includes a contest between Irish poets in the Irish language.
TheFleadh Cheoil is an annual festival forIrish traditional music that takes place in the same town for a few years in a row, before moving to another area of Ireland in an effort to include all localities in the celebration.
After the end of theIrish War of Independence and the subsequentCivil War, the1924-1937 revival of the ancientTailteann Games also emulated the Welsh Eisteddfod by including ceremonies in Pre-Christian Irish clothing and inspired byIrish mythology.
There is also the event known asImram,[153] which was founded in 2004 by Liam Carson, who had noticed that there was noliterary festival dedicated toIrish literature in the Irish language. In response, Carson received funding fromPoetry Ireland,Dublin City Council, andForas na Gaeilge. According to Carson, "The festival name means ‘a voyage of discovery’ and what we’re asking people to do is come with us and discover the Irish language."[154]
Unlike in otherCeltic nations, the Eisteddfod in theIsle of Man has much less to do with the ongoing revival efforts spearheaded byBrian Stowell,Robert Corteen Carswell,Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh, and theBunscoill Ghaelgagh, for the island'sheritage language ofManx Gaelic,its literature, andits culture. Even so, an Eisteddfod has been held since theGreat Depression inBraaid and remains a highly anticipated and widely attended event by theManx people.[155]
For players and enthusiasts ofGaelic andManx traditional music and dancing, there is also theShennaghys Jiu ("Traditional Day") festival. A closer parallel to the Eisteddfod is the annualCooish festival held since 1996 inPeel, Isle of Man.
TheScottish Gaelicmòd, a festival ofScottish Gaelic song,literature, arts and culture,[156] is modeled upon the Welsh eisteddfod. Themòd, however, is different in that it lacks the 12th-century roots or the fictitious rituals introduced by Iolo Morganwg.
Similarly to the Welsh wordeisteddfod, the Gaelic wordmòd, which derives from theOld Norse wordmót, refers to aViking AgeThing or a gathering ofScottish clans.[157] In theHighlands and Islands, however, the term originally referred to the Council of the Isles,Scottish clan chiefs who advisedSomerled and his successors among asLords of the Isles.Finlaggan onIslay was the usual site for the gathering of the Council of the Isles.[158]
Similar to the Eisteddfod and other Celtic festivals, the mòd was founded in response tocolonialism and in an effort topreserve an increasinglyendangered language from thecoerciveAnglicisation of the educational system.
According to Marcus Tanner, theSociety in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge was incorporated underQueen Anne in 1709 and began building both schools and libraries in the ScottishHighlands and Islands with a twofold purpose. The first purpose was to prevent theGaels from returning to the still illegal and undergroundCatholic Church in Scotland. The second was to ensure, "that in process of time Britons from North to South may speak the same language". For this reason, all schoolmasters were under orders to teach their students only in English and to subject any student who spoke Gaelic inside the school or on the playground toflogging.[159]
Under the1872 Education Act, school attendance was compulsory and only English was taught or tolerated in the schools of both the Lowlands and theHighlands and Islands. As a result, any student who spokeScots orScottish Gaelic in the school or on its grounds could expect what Ronald Black calls the "familiar Scottish experience of being thrashed for speaking [their] native language."[160]
In response,An Comunn Gàidhealach was founded atOban in 1891 to help preserve the Scottish Gaelic language and its literature and to establish theRoyal National Mòd (Am Mòd Nàiseanta Rìoghail), as a festival[161] of Gaelic music, literature, arts, and culture deliberately modelled upon the National Eisteddfod of Wales. The poet,traditional singer, andHighland Land League activistMàiri Mhòr nan Òran (1821–1898), performed in the first Mòd's Gaelic song competition, but she was not awarded a medal.[162][163]
Amòd largely takes the form of formal competitions. Choral events in Gaelic (both solo and by choirs), andScottish traditional music includingfiddling,bagpipe and folk groups dominate. Spoken word events include children's and adults' poetry reading, storytelling andBible reading, and categories such as ancient folk tale or humorousmonologue. Children can also present an original drama, and there are competitions in written literature.
Unlike the nationalmòd, localmòds usually only last a day or two. They attract a much smaller crowd and the only notable social event is the winners'ceilidh. As there are fewer competitions than in the nationalmòd, this ceilidh is often more like a traditional ceilidh with dancing and guest singers between the winners' performances.
According to Ronald Black, "In 1923, following the example of the Welsh Eisteddfod,An Commun Gàidhealach simplified the structure of its annual poetry competitions into a single contest for a Bardic Crown (Scottish Gaelic:Crùn na Bàrdachd), the winner to be acknowledged as Bard of An Commun (Scottish Gaelic:Bàird a' Chomuinn Gàidhealaich) for the coming year. The man behind the move, not surprisingly, was Angus Robertson, then President of An Comunn. Offering a distinctive middle path between traditional and modern verse, the competition produced much work of note which deserves to be put into perspective... (Many subsidiary prizes remained;Sorley Maclean won a junior one in 1928, while in 1946Derick Thomson won a gold medal as the most distinguished entrant in the literary competitions generally). The Bard was crowned each year at the closing concert of the Mòd. Astonishingly, unlike in Wales, the winning poem itself formed no part of the proceedings... In 1978 no award was made because not entry was of adequate quality. It was the second time in five years that this had happened, and in March 1979 An Comunn announced that the Bardic Crown would no longer be awarded."[164]
There has been some recent criticism of the "Gold Medal" event, which favors the operatic-style Gaelic singing popularized in the early 20th century byMarjory Kennedy-Fraser. Some 21st centuryScottish traditional musicians allege that the contest has long marginalised moretraditional singers like the lateFlora MacNeil and their styles.[165] This is not a new criticism, however, and the poetAllan MacDonald (1859–1905), an iconic figure inScottish Gaelic literature, once said that the Gaelic songs performed at the Mòd during its inception were, "As though you were to fit a statue into a box by taking off the nose and ears."[166]
More recently, Scottish traditional musicianFergus Munro has also gone on the record, as Scotland has grown increasingly secularised, as a critic of what he alleges is a growing tendency to exclude bothChristian poetry andGaelic psalm- andhymn-singing from the Mòd.[167]
Furthermore, the Mòd is popularly known as the "Whisky Olympics",[168] which is considered, "either a vicious slur or fair comment".[169]
Similarly to the Eisteddfod, since its more recent creation, the Mòd tradition has been introduced to theScottish diaspora.
InNova Scotia, where adistinctive form of Gaelic brought by the early Highland settlers preserves the otherwise extinctLochaber dialect, theNova Scotia Gaelic Mod attracts visitors from both sides of theCanada–United States border.
InBritish Columbia, the Gaelic Society ofVancouver held a localmòd biannually from 1990 to 2007.[170]
First held atAlexandria, Virginia in 1988, theU.S. National Mòd is now held annually as part of theHighland games atLigonier, Pennsylvania and sponsored byAn Comunn Gàidhealach Ameireaganach ('The American Scottish Gaelic Society').[171]
The 2011Royal National Mòd, held atStornoway on theIsle of Lewis, crowned Lewis MacKinnon (Lodaidh MacFhionghain), a poet in theCanadian Gaelic dialect spoken inAntigonish County,Nova Scotia, as the winning bard. It was the first time in the 120-year history of themòd that a writer ofGaelic poetry from theScottish diaspora had won the Bardic Crown.[172]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Burton, Edwin (1912). "Ven. Richard White". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company. p. 612.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)Despite these shortcomings, the Mod retains a flagship status and is recognized throughout Scotland as a manifestation of Gaelic culture.
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