Theeffects of climate change on small island countries are affecting people in coastal areas throughsea level rise, increasing heavy rain events,tropical cyclones andstorm surges.^[1]: 2045 Theseeffects of climate change threaten the existence of manyisland countries, their peoples and cultures. They also alterecosystems and natural environments in those countries.Small island developing states (SIDS) are a heterogenous group of countries but many of them are particularlyat risk due to climate change.^[2] Those countries have been quite vocal in calling attention to the challenges they face from climate change.^[2] In a 2025 cross-national survey of 14,710 people across 55 small-island states and territories found an 89 to nearly 100% acceptance of human-caused climate change. However, when addressing smaller island communities, it is important to consider the empirical gap. Currently, there are issues with having adequate data that best supports these communities’ opinions, beliefs, and behavior on climate change. Geologically, it is difficult to survey these countries because of obstacles with service or low internet access. Addressing this empirical gap means that we perform essential research to better obtain perspective from these smaller countries, working together to find efficient solutions to slow climate change.^[3] For example, theMaldives and nations of theCaribbean andPacific Islands are already experiencing considerable impacts of climate change.^[4] It is critical for them to implementclimate change adaptation measures fast.^[4]

Some small and low population islands do not have the resources to protect their islands and natural resources. They experienceclimate hazards which impact on human health, livelihoods, and inhabitable space. This can lead to pressure toleave these islands but resources to do so are often lacking as well.

Efforts to combat these challenges are ongoing and multinational. Many of the small island developing countries have a high vulnerability to climate change, whilst having contributed very little to globalgreenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, some small island countries have made advocacy for global cooperation onclimate change mitigation a key aspect of theirforeign policy.

Sea level was much lower during the last ice age when glaciers covered a third of Earth's land mass.^[5]

Small island developing states (SIDS) are identified as a group of 38 United Nations (UN) Member States and 20 Non-UN Member/Associate Members that are located in three regions: the Caribbean; the Pacific; and the Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and South China Seas (AIMS) and are home to approximately 65 million people. These nations are far from homogeneous but they do share numerous features, including narrow resource bases, dominance of economic sectors that are reliant on the natural environment, limited industrial activity, physical remoteness, and limited economies of scale.^[2]

Due to close connections between human communities and coastal environments, SIDS are particularly exposed to hazards associated with the ocean andcryosphere, includingsea level rise, extreme sea levels,tropical cyclones,marine heatwaves, andocean acidification. A common feature of SIDS is a high ratio of coastline-to-land area, with large portions of populations, infrastructure, and assets being located along the coast.^[2]

Patterns of increasinghazards, high levels of exposure, and acutevulnerability interact to result in high risk of small island developing states (SIDS) to climate change.^[2]

Small island developing states (SIDS) have long been recognized as being particularly at risk to climate change. These nations are often described as being on the "frontlines of climate change", as "hot spots of climate change", or as being "canaries in the coalmine".^[2] TheIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change warned already in 2001 that small island countries will experience considerable economic and social consequences due to climate change.^[6]

Small island developing states make minimal contribution to globalgreenhouse gas emissions, with a combined total of less than 1%.^[7][4]However, that does not indicate that greenhouse emissions are not produced at all, and it is recorded that the annual total greenhouse gas emissions from islands could range from 292.1 to 29,096.2 [metric] tonne CO₂-equivalent.^[8]

Sea level rise is especially threatening to low-lying island nations because seas are encroaching upon limited habitable land and threatening existing cultures.^[11][12]Stefan Rahmstorf, a professor of Ocean Physics atPotsdam University in Germany, notes "even limiting warming to 2 degrees, in my view, will still commit some island nations and coastal cities to drown."^[13]

Atmospheric temperature extremes have already increased in frequency and intensity in SIDS and are projected to continue along this trend.^[2] Heavy precipitation events in SIDS have also increased in frequency and intensity and are expected to further increase.^[2]

Climate change poses a risk tofood security in many Pacific Islands, impactingfisheries andagriculture.^[22] As sea level rises, island nations are at increased risk of losing coastal arable land to degradation as well assalination. Once the limited available soil on these islands becomes salinated, it becomes very difficult to produce subsistence crops such asbreadfruit. This would severely impact the agricultural and commercial sector in nations such as theMarshall Islands andKiribati.^[23]

In addition, local fisheries would also be affected byhigher ocean temperatures and increasedocean acidification. As ocean temperatures rise and the pH of oceans decreases, many fish and other marine species would die out or change their habits and range. As well as this, water supplies and local ecosystems such asmangroves, are threatened by global warming.^[24]

SIDS may also have reduced financial andhuman capital tomitigate climate change risk, as many rely oninternational aid to cope with disasters like severe storms. Worldwide, climate change is projected to cause an average annual loss of 0.5%GDP by 2030; in Pacific SIDS, it will be 0.75–6.5% GDP by 2030. Caribbean SIDS will have average annual losses of 5% by 2025, escalating to 20% by 2100 in projections without regional mitigation strategies.^[2] Thetourism sector of many island countries is particularly threatened by increased occurrences of extreme weather events such ashurricanes anddroughts.^[24]

Climate change impacts small island ecosystems in ways that have a detrimental effect on public health. In island nations, changes in sea levels, temperature, and humidity may increase the prevalence ofmosquitoes and diseases carried by them such asmalaria andZika virus. Rising sea levels and severe weather such as flooding and droughts may render agricultural land unusable and contaminate freshwater drinking supplies. Flooding and rising sea levels also directly threaten populations, and in some cases may be a threat to the entire existence of the island.^[25]

Other impacts on small islands include:^[26]

• deterioration in coastal conditions, such as beach erosion andcoral bleaching, which will likely affect local resources such as fisheries, as well as the value of tourism destinations.
• reduction of already limited water resources to the point that they become insufficient to meet demand during low-rainfall periods by mid-century, especially on small islands (such as in theCaribbean and thePacific Ocean)
• invasion by non-native species increasing with higher temperatures, particularly in mid- and high-latitude islands.

Governments face a complex task when combining grey infrastructure withgreen infrastructure andnature-based solutions to help withdisaster risk management in areas such as flood control, early warning systems, and integrated water resource management.^[27]

Climate migration has been discussed in popular media as a potentialadaptation approach for the populations of islands threatened by sea level rise. These depictions are oftensensationalist or problematic, although migration may likely form a part of adaptation. Mobility has long been a part of life in islands, but could be used in combination with local adaptation measures.^[4]

A study that engaged the experiences of residents in atoll communities found that the cultural identities of these populations are strongly tied to these lands.^[28]Human rights activists argue that the potential loss of entire atoll countries, and consequently the loss of national sovereignty, self-determination, cultures, and indigenous lifestyles cannot be compensated for financially.^[29][30] Some researchers suggest that the focus of international dialogues on these issues should shift from ways to relocate entire communities to strategies that instead allow for these communities to remain on their lands.^[29][28]

Many SIDS now understand the need to move towards low-carbon,climate resilient economies, as set out in theCaribbean Community (CARICOM) implementation plan for climate change-resilient development. SIDS often rely heavily on imported fossil fuels, spending an ever-larger proportion of their GDP on energy imports.Renewable technologies have the advantage of providing energy at a lower cost than fossil fuels and making SIDS more sustainable.Barbados has been successful in adopting the use ofsolar water heaters (SWHs). A 2012 report published by theClimate & Development Knowledge Network showed that its SWH industry now boasts over 50,000 installations. These have saved consumers as much as US$137 million since the early 1970s. The report suggested that Barbados' experience could be easily replicated in other SIDS with high fossil fuel imports and abundant sunshine.^[31]

The governments of several island nations have madepolitical advocacy for greater international ambition onclimate change mitigation andclimate change adaptation a component of theirforeign policy and international alliances.^[2]

TheAlliance of Small Island States (ASIS) has been a strong negotiating group in theUNFCCC, highlighting that although they are negligible contributors to anthropogenic climate change, they are among the most vulnerable to its impacts.^[2] The 43 members of the alliance have held the position of limiting global warming to1.5°C, and advocated for this at the2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference, influencing the goals of theParis Agreement.^[32][33]Marshall Islands Prime MinisterTony deBrum was central in forming theHigh Ambition Coalition at the conference.^[34] Meetings of thePacific Islands Forum have also discussed the issue.^[35]

TheMaldives andTuvalu particularly have played a prominent role on the international stage. In 2002, Tuvalu threatened to sue theUnited States andAustralia in theInternational Court of Justice for their contribution to climate change and for not ratifying theKyoto Protocol.^[36] The governments of both of these countries have cooperated with environmental advocacy networks, non-governmental organisations and the media to draw attention to the threat of climate change to their countries. At the2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Tuvalu delegate Ian Fry spearheadedan effort to halt negotiations and demand a comprehensive, legally binding agreement.^[36]

As of March 2022, theAsian Development Bank has committed $3.62 billion to help small island developing states with climate change, transport, energy, and health projects.^[37]

This section is an excerpt fromClimate change in the Caribbean.[edit]

Climate change today encompasses not only global warming, which refers to the alarming and continuous rise in the planet's average surface temperature, but also the extensive and multifaceted impacts this phenomenon has on Earth's climate.^[38] These effects are manifested in various ways, including altered weather patterns, increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, melting ice caps, rising sea levels, and shifts in ecosystem dynamics.^[38] Climate change accounts for historical long-term fluctuations in Earth's climate, highlighting the natural variability of climate over millennia but underscoring the unprecedented rate of current change attributed to human activities.^[38]

Climate change presents significant risks to theCaribbean islands.^[39] Key environmental changes anticipated in the region includerising sea levels, more intensehurricanes, longerdry seasons, and shorterwet seasons.^[39] As a result,climate change is likely to impact the economy, which is heavily dependent on tourism, the environment, and the population of the Caribbean.^[40][41][42]

East Timor, or Timor-Leste, faces numerous challenges as a result of climate change and increased global temperatures. As an island country, rising sea levels threaten its coastal areas, including the capital cityDili.^[43] The country is considered highly vulnerable and is expected to experience worseningcyclones, flooding, heatwaves, and drought. As a large percentage of the population is dependent on local agriculture, these changes are expected to impact industry in the country as well.^[44]

This section is an excerpt fromClimate change in the Maldives.[edit]

Climate change is a major issue for theMaldives. As an archipelago oflow-lying islands andatolls in the Indian Ocean, the existence of the Maldives is severely threatened bysea level rise. By 2050, 80% of the country could become uninhabitable due to global warming.^[45] According to theWorld Bank, with "future sea levels projected to increase in the range of 10 to 100 centimeters by the year 2100, the entire country could be submerged".^[46] The Maldives is striving toadapt to climate change, and Maldivian authorities have been prominent in internationalpolitical advocacy to implementclimate change mitigation.

The existence of the nation ofKiribati is imperilled by rising sea levels, with the country losing land every year.^[51] Many of its islands are currently or becoming inhabitable due to their shrinking size. Thus, the majority of the country's population resides in only a handful of islands, with more than half of its residents living on one island alone,Tarawa. This leads to other issues such as severe overcrowding in such a small area.^[52] In 1999, the uninhabited islands ofTebua Tarawa andAbanuea both disappeared underwater.^[53] Thegovernment'sKiribati Adaptation Program was launched in 2003 to mitigate the country's vulnerability to the issue.^[54] In 2008, fresh water supplies began being encroached by seawater, prompting PresidentAnote Tong to request international assistance to begin relocating the country's population elsewhere.^[55]

This section is an excerpt fromClimate change in the Marshall Islands.[edit]

Climate change in the Marshall Islands is a major issue for the country. As with many countries made up of low-lying islands, theMarshall Islands is highly vulnerable tosea level rise and other impacts ofclimate change. The atoll and capital city ofMajuro are particularly vulnerable, and the issue poses significant implications for the country's population. These threats have prompted Marshallese political leaders to make climate change a key diplomatic issue, who have responded with initiatives such as theMajuro Declaration.The Human Rights Measurement Initiative^[56] finds that the climate crisis has worsened human rights conditions in the Marshall Islands greatly (5.0 out of 6).^[57] Human rights experts reported that the climate crisis has negatively impacted the economy, increased rates of unemployment, and lead to relocations to higher areas or migrations to other countries.^[57]

Between 1947 and 2014, six islands of theSolomon Islands disappeared due tosea level rise, while another six shrunk by between 20 and 62 per cent.Nuatambu Island was the most populated of these with 25 families living on it; 11 houses washed into the sea by 2011.^[60]

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative^[61] finds that the climate crisis has worsened human rights conditions in the Solomon Islands greatly (5.0 out of 6).^[62] Human rights experts provided that the climate crisis has contributed to conflict in communities, negative future socio-economic outlook, and food instability.^[62]

Tuvalu is a small Polynesian island nation located in the Pacific Ocean. It can be found about halfway between Hawaii and Australia. It is made up of nine tiny islands, five of which are coral atolls while the other four consists of land rising from the sea bed. All are low-lying islands with no point on Tuvalu being higher than 4.5m above sea level.^[63] The analysis of15+1⁄2 years of sea level data fromFunafuti, identified that the sea level rise rate was 5.9 mm per year (in the15+1⁄2 years to September 2008) and the sea level in the Funafuti area rose approximately 9.14 cm during that period of time.^[64] As well as this, the dangerous peak high tides in Tuvalu are becoming higher causing greater danger. In response to sea level rise, Tuvalu is considering resettlement plans in addition to pushing for increased action in confronting climate change at the UN.^[65] On 10 November 2023, Tuvalu signed the Falepili Union, abilateral diplomatic relationship with Australia, under which Australia will provide a pathway for citizens of Tuvalu to migrate to Australia, to enableclimate-related mobility for Tuvaluans.^[66][67]

In theSeychelles, the impacts of climate change were observable in precipitation, air temperature andsea surface temperature by the early 2000s. Climate change poses a threat to itscoral reef ecosystems, with drought conditions in 1999 and a massbleaching event in 1998. Water management will be critically impacted.^[6]

This section is an excerpt fromClimate change in Singapore.[edit]

Singapore adopts a proactive long-term effort in addressingrising sea-levels, temperature increases due toglobal warming, and reducinggreenhouse gas emissions.

As of 2022, compared to otherASEAN countries, Singapore has the second highest per capita CO₂ emissions at 8.9 tonnes, and ranks sixth in total annual CO₂ emissions at 53.25 million tonnes.^[72]

• Ambo Declaration
• Baku Communiqué

• Climate change in Singapore
• Islands First
• Majuro Declaration
• Tarawa Climate Change Conference

• Chapter 15: Small Islands in IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Working Group 2: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability

• Climate change and the environment
• Island countries
• Small Island Developing States
• Climate change by country and region
• Regional effects of climate change

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