The islands of Samoa were formed from theMiocene period. For the past 2 million years, the Samoan archipelago has experienced activity related tovolcanic hotspots.[18]
Samoa was discovered and settled by theLapita people (Austronesian people who spokeOceanic languages), who travelled fromIsland Melanesia. The earliest human remains found in Samoa are dated to between roughly 2,900 and 3,500 years ago. The remains were discovered at a Lapita site atMulifanua, and the scientists' findings were published in 1974.[19] The Samoans' origins have been studied in modern times through scientific research on Polynesiangenetics,linguistics, andanthropology. Although this research is ongoing, a number of theories have been proposed. One theory is that the original Samoans wereAustronesians who arrived during a final period of eastward expansion of the Lapita peoples out of Southeast Asia andMelanesia between 2,500 and 1,500 BCE.[20]
Intimate sociocultural and genetic ties were maintained between Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga, and the archaeological record supports oral tradition and native genealogies that indicate interisland voyaging and intermarriage among precolonial Samoans,Fijians, andTongans. Notable figures in Samoan history included theTui Manu'a line, QueenSalamasina,King Fonoti and the fourtama a ʻāiga:Malietoa,Tupua Tamasese,Mataʻafa, andTuimalealiʻifano.Nafanua was a famous woman warrior who was deified in ancient Samoan religion and whose patronage was highly sought after by successive Samoan rulers.[21]
Today, all of Samoa is united under its two principal royal families: the Sā Malietoa of the ancient Malietoa lineage that defeated the Tongans in the 13th century; and the Sā Tupua, Queen Salamasina's descendants and heirs who ruled Samoa in the centuries that followed her reign. Within these two principal lineages are the four highest titles of Samoa – the elder titles of Malietoa and Tupua Tamasese of antiquity and the newer Mataʻafa and Tuimalealiʻifano titles, which rose to prominence in 19th-century wars that preceded the colonial period.[21] These four titles form the apex of the Samoan matai system as it stands today.
Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century.Jacob Roggeveen, a Dutchman, was the first known non-Polynesian to sight the Samoan islands in 1722. This visit was followed by French explorerLouis Antoine de Bougainville, who named them the Navigator Islands in 1768. Contact was limited before the 1830s, which is when Britishmissionaries of the London Missionary Society, whalers, and traders began arriving.[22]
Visits by American trading andwhaling vessels were important in the early economic development of Samoa. TheSalem brigRoscoe (Captain Benjamin Vanderford), in October 1821, was the first American trading vessel known to have called, and theMaro (Captain Richard Macy) ofNantucket, in 1824, was the first recorded United States whaler at Samoa.[23] The whalers came for fresh drinking water, firewood, provisions and, later, for recruiting local men to serve as crewmen on their ships. The last recorded whaler visitor was theGovernor Morton in 1870.[24]
Christian missionary work in Samoa began in 1830 whenJohn Williams of theLondon Missionary Society arrived inSapapali'i from theCook Islands andTahiti.[25] According to Barbara A. West, "The Samoans were also known to engage in 'headhunting', a ritual of war in which a warrior took the head of his slain opponent to give to his leader, thus proving his bravery."[26]
InA Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa (1892),Robert Louis Stevenson details the activities of thegreat powers battling for influence in Samoa – the United States, Germany and Britain – and the political machinations of the various Samoan factions within their indigenous political system.[27][28] Even as they descended into ever greater interclan warfare, what most alarmed Stevenson was the Samoans' economic innocence. In 1894, just months before his death, he addressed the island chiefs:
There is but one way to defend Samoa. Hear it before it is too late. It is to make roads, and gardens, and care for your trees, and sell their produce wisely, and, in one word, to occupy and use your country ... if you do not occupy and use your country, others will. It will not continue to be yours or your children's, if you occupy it for nothing. You and your children will in that case be cast out into outer darkness.
He had "seen these judgments of God" inHawaii, where abandoned native churches stood like tombstones "over a grave, in the midst of the white men's sugar fields".[29]
The Germans, in particular, began to show great commercial interest in theSamoan Islands, especially on the island of Upolu, where German firms monopolisedcopra andcocoa bean processing. The United States laid its own claim, based on commercial shipping interests in Pearl Harbor inHawaii and Pago Pago Bay in eastern Samoa, and forced alliances, most conspicuously on the islands ofTutuila andManu'a, which becameAmerican Samoa.
Britain also sent troops to protect British business enterprise, harbour rights, and consulate office. This was followed by aneight-year civil war, during which each of the three powers supplied arms, training and in some cases combat troops to the warring Samoan parties. TheSamoan crisis came to a critical juncture in March 1889 when all three colonial contenders sent warships into Apia harbour, and a larger-scale war seemed imminent. A massive storm on 15 March 1889 damaged or destroyed the warships, ending the military conflict.[30]
TheSecond Samoan Civil War reached a head in 1898 whenGermany, theUnited Kingdom, and the United States were locked in dispute over who should control the Samoan Islands. TheSiege of Apia occurred in March 1899. Samoan forces loyal to PrinceTanu were besieged by a larger force of Samoan rebels loyal toMataʻafa Iosefo. Supporting Prince Tanu were landing parties from four British and American warships. After several days of fighting, the Samoan rebels were finally defeated.[31]
Mataʻafa Iosefo (1832–1912), paramount chief and rival for the kingship of SamoaThe joint commission ofGermany, the United States andGreat Britain abolished the Samoan kingship in June 1899.Exiled orator Lauaki Namulauʻulu Mamoe (standing third from left with orator's staff) and other chiefs aboard German warship taking them to exile in Saipan, 1909
American and British warships shelled Apia on 15 March 1899, including theUSSPhiladelphia. Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States quickly resolved to end the hostilities and divided the island chain at theTripartite Convention of 1899, signed at Washington on 2 December 1899 with ratifications exchanged on 16 February 1900.[32][33]
The eastern island-group became a territory of the United States (the Tutuila Islands in 1900 and officially Manu'a in 1904) and was known as American Samoa. The western islands, by far the greater landmass, becameGerman Samoa. The United Kingdom had vacated all claims in Samoa and in return received (1) termination of German rights inTonga, (2) all of the Solomon Islands south of Bougainville, and (3) territorial alignments in West Africa.[34]
Chiefs from all around Samoa mourning the 1929 death of Mau Movement leader, Tupua Tamesese Lealofi III, after the Black Saturday killings by NZ soldiers
The German colonial administration governed on the principle that "there was only one government in the islands."[36] Thus, there was no SamoanTupu (king), nor analii sili (similar to a governor), but twoFautua (advisors) were appointed by the colonial government.Tumua andPule (traditional governments of Upolu and Savai'i) were for a time silent; all decisions on matters affecting lands and titles were under the control of the colonial Governor.
In the first month ofWorld War I, on 29 August 1914, troops of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force landed unopposed on Upolu andseized control from the German authorities, following a request by Great Britain for New Zealand to perform this "great and urgent imperial service."[37]
From the end ofWorld War I until 1962, New Zealand controlled Western Samoa as aClass C Mandate undertrusteeship through theLeague of Nations,[33][38] then through the United Nations. Between 1919 and 1962, Samoa was administered by theDepartment of External Affairs, a government department which had been specially created to oversee New Zealand's Island Territories and Samoa.[39] In 1943, this department was renamed theDepartment of Island Territories after a separateDepartment of External Affairs was created to conduct New Zealand's foreign affairs.[40] During the period of New Zealand control, their administrators were responsible for two major incidents.
In 1918, during the final stages ofWorld War I, theSpanish flu had taken its toll, spreading rapidly from country to country. On Samoa, there had been no epidemic of pneumonic influenza in Western Samoa before the arrival of theSSTalune fromAuckland on 7 November 1918. The NZ administration allowed the ship to berth in breach of quarantine; within seven days of this ship's arrival, influenza became epidemic in Upolu and then spread rapidly throughout the rest of the territory.[42] Samoa suffered the most of all Pacific islands, with 90% of the population infected; 30% of adult men, 22% of adult women and 10% of children died.[43] The cause of the epidemic was confirmed in 1919 by aRoyal Commission of Inquiry into the Epidemic concluded that there had been no epidemic of pneumonic influenza in Western Samoa before the arrival of theTalune from Auckland on 7 November 1918.[42]
The pandemic undermined Samoan confidence in New Zealand's administrative capacity and competence.[33] Some Samoans asked that the rule of the islands be transferred to the Americans or the British.[33]
The second major incident arose out of an initially peaceful protest by theMau (which literally translates as "strongly held opinion"), a non-violent popular pro-independence movement which had its beginnings in the early 1900s on Savai'i, led byLauaki Namulauulu Mamoe, an orator chief deposed by Solf. In 1909, Lauaki was exiled toSaipan and died en route back to Samoa in 1915.
By 1918, Western Samoa had a population of some 38,000 Samoans and 1,500 Europeans.[44]
However, native Samoans greatly resented New Zealand's colonial rule, and blamed inflation and the catastrophic 1918 flu epidemic on its misrule.[45] By the late 1920s the resistance movement against colonial rule had gathered widespread support. One of the Mau leaders wasOlaf Frederick Nelson, a half Samoan and half Swedish merchant.[46] Nelson was eventuallyexiled during the late 1920s and early 1930s, but he continued to assist the organisation financially and politically. In accordance with the Mau's non-violent philosophy, the newly elected leader, High Chief Tupua Tamasese Lealofi, led his fellow uniformed Mau in a peaceful demonstration in downtown Apia on 28 December 1929.[47]
The New Zealand police attempted to arrest one of the leaders in the demonstration. When he resisted, a struggle developed between the police and the Mau. The officers began to fire randomly into the crowd and used aLewis machine gun, mounted in preparation for the demonstration, to disperse the demonstrators.[48] Mau leader and paramount chiefTupua Tamasese Lealofi III was shot from behind and killed while trying to bring calm and order to the Mau demonstrators. Ten others died that day and approximately 50 were injured by gunshot wounds and police batons.[49] That day would come to be known in Samoa as Black Saturday.
On 13 January 1930, the New Zealand authorities banned the organisation. As many as 1500 Mau men took to the bush, pursued by an armed force of 150 marines and seamen from thelight cruiserHMSDunedin, and 50 military police. They were supported by a seaplane flown by Flight LieutenantSidney Wallingford of theNew Zealand Permanent Air Force. Villages were raided, often at night and with fixed bayonets. In March, through the mediation of local Europeans and missionaries, Mau leaders met New Zealand's Minister of Defence and agreed to disperse.[50]
Supporters of the Mau continued to be arrested, so women came to the fore rallying supporters and staging demonstrations. The political stalemate was broken following the victory of the Labour Party in New Zealand's 1935 general election. A 'goodwill mission' to Apia in June 1936 recognised the Mau as a legitimate political organisation, and Olaf Nelson was allowed to return from exile.[50] In September 1936, Samoans exercised for the first time the right to elect the members of the advisoryFono of Faipule,[51] with representatives of theMau movement winning 31 of the 39 seats.[52]
After repeated efforts by the Samoan independence movement, the New Zealand Western Samoa Act of 24 November 1961 terminated the Trusteeship Agreement and granted the country independence as theIndependent State of Western Samoa, effective 1 January 1962.[53][54] Western Samoa, the first small-island country in the Pacific to become independent, signed aTreaty of Friendship with New Zealand later in 1962. Western Samoa joined theCommonwealth of Nations on 28 August 1970. While independence was achieved at the beginning of January, Samoa annually celebrates 1 June as its independence day.[55][56]
On 15 December 1976, Western Samoa was admitted to theUnited Nations as the 147thmember state. It asked to be referred to in the United Nations as theIndependent State of Samoa.[59]
Travel writerPaul Theroux noted marked differences between the societies in Western Samoa andAmerican Samoa in 1992.[60]
On 4 July 1997 the government amended the constitution to change the name of the country fromWestern Samoa toSamoa,[61] the name it had been called by in the United Nations since it joined.[62]American Samoa protested against the name change, asserting that it diminished its own identity.[62]
In 2002, New Zealand prime ministerHelen Clark formally apologised for New Zealand's role in the Spanish influenza outbreak in 1918 that killed over a quarter of Samoa's population and for the Black Saturday killings in 1929.[63][64]
On 7 September 2009, the government changed the rule of the road fromright to left, in common with most other Commonwealth countries - most notably countries in the region such as Australia and New Zealand, home to large numbers of Samoans.[65] This made Samoa the first country in the 21st century to switch to driving on the left.[66]
At the end of December 2011, Samoa changed its time zone offset from UTC−11 to UTC+13, effectively jumping forward by one day, omitting Friday, 30 December from the local calendar. This also had the effect of changing the shape of theInternational Date Line, moving it to the east of the territory.[67] This change aimed to help the nation boost its economy in doing business with Australia and New Zealand. Before this change, Samoa was 21 hours behindSydney, but the change means it is now three hours ahead. The previous time zone, implemented on 4 July 1892, operated in line with American traders based inCalifornia.[68] In October 2021, Samoa ceaseddaylight saving time.[69]
In June 2017, Parliament amended Article 1 of the Samoan Constitution to makeChristianity the state religion.[2][71]
In September 2019, ameasles outbreak resulted in the deaths of 83 people. Following the outbreak, the government imposed a curfew in December later during the same year.
In May 2021,Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa became Samoa's first female prime minister. Mataʻafa'sFAST party narrowly won theelection, ending the rule of long-term Prime MinisterTuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi of theHuman Rights Protection Party (HRPP),[72] although theconstitutional crisis complicated and delayed this. On 24 May 2021, she was sworn in as the new prime minister, though it was not until July that the Supreme Court ruled that her swearing-in was legal, thus ending the constitutional crisis and bringing an end to Tuilaʻepa's 22-year premiership. The FAST party's success in the 2021 election and subsequent court rulings also ended nearly four decades of HRPP rule.[73]
The1960 constitution, which formally came into force with independence from New Zealand in 1962, builds on the British pattern ofparliamentary democracy, modified to take account of Samoan customs.[74] The national modern Government of Samoa is referred to as theMalo.
TheLegislative Assembly orFono is the unicameral legislature, consisting of 51 members serving five year terms. Forty-nine arematai title-holders elected from territorial districts by Samoans; the other two are chosen by non-Samoans with no chiefly affiliation on separate electoral rolls. At least ten per cent of the MPs must be women.[76] Universal suffrage was adopted in 1990, but only chiefs (matai) may stand for election to the Samoan seats. There are more than 25,000 matais in the country, about five per cent of whom are women.[77] Theprime minister, chosen by a majority in the assembly, is appointed by the head of state to form a government. The prime minister's choices for the 12cabinet positions are appointed by the head of state, subject to the continuing confidence of the legislative assembly.
Prominent women in Samoan politics include the lateLaʻulu Fetauimalemau Mataʻafa (1928–2007) fromLotofaga constituency, the wife of Samoa's first prime minister. Their daughterFiamē Naomi Mataʻafa is amatai and a long-serving senior member of cabinet, who was elected Prime Minister in 2021. Other women in politics include Samoan scholar and eminent professorAiono Fanaafi Le Tagaloa, orator-chiefMatatumua Maimoana andSafuneituʻuga Paʻaga Neri (former Minister of Communication and Technology).
Political districts of Samoa, including minor islands
Samoa comprises elevenitūmālō (political districts). These are the traditional eleven districts which predate European arrival. Each district has its own constitutional foundation (faʻavae) based on the traditional order of title precedence found in each district'sfaalupega (traditional salutations).[78] The capital village of each district administers and coordinates the affairs of the district and confers each district's paramount title, amongst other responsibilities.
For example:
Aʻana has its capital atLeulumoega. The paramounttama a 'āiga (royal lineage) title of Aʻana isTuimalealiʻifano. The paramountpāpā title of Aʻana is the Tui Aʻana. The orator group which confers this title — theFaleiva (House of Nine) — is based at Leulumoega.
Ātua has its capital atLufilufi. The paramounttama a ʻāiga (royal lineage) titles of Ātua areTupua Tamasese (based inFalefa and Salani) andMataʻafa (based in Amaile and Lotofaga). The two main political families who confer the respective titles areʻAiga Sā Fenunuivao andʻAiga Sā Levālasi. The paramountpāpā title of Ātua is the Tui Ātua. The orator group which confers this title — theFaleono (House of Six) — is based at Lufilufi.
Tuamasaga has its capital atAfega. The paramounttama a ʻāiga (royal lineage) title of Tuamasaga is theMalietoa title, based inMalie. The main political family that confers the Malietoa title is ʻAiga Sā Malietoa, with Auimatagi as the main speaker for the family. The paramountpāpā titles of Tuamasaga are Gatoaitele (conferred by Afega) and Vaetamasoalii (conferred by Safata).[28]
Major areas of concern include the under-representation of women, domestic violence and poor prison conditions.Homosexual acts are illegal in Samoa.[79]
In June 2017, an Act was passed changing the country's constitution to include a reference to theTrinity. As amended, Article 1 of the Samoan Constitution states that "Samoa is a Christian nation founded on God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit".[80] According toThe Diplomat, "What Samoa has done is shift references to Christianity into the body of the constitution, giving the text far more potential to be used in legal processes."[81] The preamble to the constitution already described the country as "an independent State based on Christian principles and Samoan custom and traditions."[81]
Officers of the national police force, theSamoa Police Service, are regularly unarmed, but may be armed in exceptional circumstances with ministerial approval.[83] As of 2022 there are between 900 and 1,100 police officers in Samoa.
Samoa lies south of the equator, about halfway between Hawaii and New Zealand, in thePolynesian region of the Pacific Ocean. The total land area is 2,842 km2 (1,097 sq mi),[84] consisting of the two large islands ofUpolu andSavaiʻi (which together account for 99% of the total land area) and eight small islets.
Nuʻusafeʻe, which is less than 1 ha (2+1⁄2 acres) in area and lies about 1.4 km (0.87 mi; 0.76 nmi) off the south coast of Upolu at the village of Vaovai
The main island of Upolu is home to nearly three-quarters of Samoa's population, and to the capital city,Apia.
The Samoan islands result geologically fromvolcanism, originating with theSamoa hotspot, which probably results from amantle plume.[86][87] While all of the islands have volcanic origins, only Savaiʻi, the westernmost island in Samoa, remains volcanically active, with the most recent eruptions atMount Matavanu (1905–1911),Mata o le Afi (1902) andMauga Afi (1725). The highest point in Samoa isMount Silisili, at 1,858 m (6,096 ft). TheSaleaula lava fields situated on the central north coast of Savaiʻi result from the Mount Matavanu eruptions, which left 50 km2 (19 sq mi) of solidified lava.[88]
Savaiʻi is the largest of the Samoan islands and the sixth-largest Polynesian island (after New Zealand'sNorth,South andStewart Islands and the Hawaiian islands ofHawaiʻi andMaui). The population of Savaiʻi is roughly 42 thousand people.
Samoa has an equatorial climate, with an average annual temperature of 26.5 °C (79.7 °F) and a main rainy season from November to April, although heavy rain may fall in any month.[89]
Samoa forms part of theSamoan tropical moist forests ecoregion.[91] Since human habitation began, about 80% of the lowland rainforests have disappeared. However, with recent reforestation, about 60.4% or about 171,000 ha of Samoa is forested, of which 32,000 ha is planted forest.[92]
Within the ecoregion about 28% of plants and 84% of land birds are endemic.[93]
Central Bank of SamoaSamoa electricity production by sourceTaro, a root crop, traditionally was Samoa's largest export, generating more than half of all export revenue in 1993. A fungal blight devastated the plants, and in each year since 1994 taro exports have accounted for less than 1% of export revenue.
TheCentral Bank of Samoa issues and regulates Samoa's currency, theSamoan tālā.[96]The economy of Samoa has traditionally depended on agriculture and fishing at the local level. In modern times,development aid, private familyremittances from overseas, and agricultural exports have become key factors in the nation's economy. Agriculture employs two-thirds of the labour force and furnishes 90% of exports, featuringcoconut cream,coconut oil,noni (juice of thenonu fruit, as it is known in Samoan), andcopra.[1]
Sixty percent of Samoa's electricity comes from renewablehydro, solar, and wind sources, with the remainder produced by diesel generators. The Electric Power Corporation set a goal of100% renewable energy by 2021.[97]
In the period before German colonisation (from the late 19th century), Samoa produced mostly copra. German merchants and settlers were active in introducing large-scaleplantation operations and in developing new industries, notably cocoa beans and rubber, relying on imported labourers fromChina andMelanesia. When the value ofnatural rubber fell drastically, about the end of the Great War (World War I) in 1918, the New Zealand government encouraged the production of bananas, for which there is a large market inNew Zealand.[98]
Because of variations in altitude, Samoa can cultivate a large range of tropical and subtropical crops. Land is not generally available to outside interests. Of the total land area of 2,934 km2 (725,000 acres), about 24.4% is in permanent crops and another 21.2% is arable. About 4.4% is Western Samoan Trust Estates Corporation (WSTEC).[99]
The staple products of Samoa are copra (dried coconut meat),cocoa beans (for chocolate), rubber, and bananas.[100] The annual production of both bananas and copra has been[when?] in the range of 13,000–15,000 tonnes (14,000–17,000 tons). If thecoconut rhinoceros beetle in Samoa were eradicated, Samoa could produce in excess of 40,000 tonnes (44,000 tons) of copra. Samoan cocoa beans are of very high quality and are used in fine New Zealand chocolates. Most areCriollo-Forastero hybrids. Coffee grows well, but production has been uneven. WESTEC is the biggest coffee producer.
Other agricultural industries have proven less successful.Sugarcane production was originally established by Germans in the early 20th century. Old train tracks for transporting cane can be seen at some plantations east ofApia.Pineapples grow well in Samoa, but have not moved beyond local consumption to become a major export.[101][102]
Samoa's transportation infrastructure effectively connects its two main islands,Upolu andSavai'i, and facilitates travel to and from neighboring regions.
Faleolo International Airport, located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) west of the capitalApia on Upolu Island, serves as Samoa's primary gateway for international flights. The airport is managed by theAirports Authority and handles flights from various international carriers.
TheSamoa Shipping Corporation, established in 1974, operates regular ferry services between Upolu and Savai'i islands.[103] The main ferry route connectsMulifanua Wharf on Upolu withSalelologa Wharf on Savai'i, with a crossing time of approximately 60 to 90 minutes. Ferries operate daily, providing both passenger and vehicle transport services. The corporation also offers services to neighboring territories, includingAmerican Samoa andTokelau.[104][105]
Public transportation within Samoa primarily consists of buses and taxis. Buses are a popular mode of travel, with terminals located in Apia behind theFugalei Food Market and in Savalalo next to the Fish Market. On Savai'i, bus terminals are situated at the market and main wharf inSalelologa. Fares are generally affordable, with the most one should expect to pay being SAT$12 per person.[106] Taxis are readily available and can be hired for both short trips and day-long excursions. Renting a scooter is another option, offering flexibility to explore at one's own pace; however, wearing helmets is mandatory.[107]
Samoa's road network consists mainly of paved highways connecting key towns and villages on both Upolu and Savai'i islands. Driving is on the left-hand side of the road, a practice adopted in 2009 to align with neighboring countries.[108] The roads are generally well-maintained, facilitating efficient travel across the islands.
The main port in Apia serves as the primary hub for international shipping, handling containerized cargo and fuel shipments. The port also accommodates ferries traveling to American Samoa and otherPacific islands. Additional ports, such as those in Salelologa on Savai'i, support inter-island ferry services and local maritime activities.[104][105]
While less common, some visitors and locals opt for cycling or walking, especially in rural areas. However, due to limited infrastructure for non-motorized transport, these modes are less prevalent for long-distance travel.[109][110]
Samoa reported a population of 194,320 in its 2016 census.[111] This number increased to 205,557 in its 2021 Census.[3] About three-quarters of the population live on the main island ofUpolu.[74]
A measles outbreak began in October 2019. By the time the outbreak subsided in early January, the number of deaths reached 83 (0.31 per 1,000, based on a population of 201,316[112]) and over 4,460 cases (2.2% of the population) of measles in Samoa,[113][114] mainly children under four years old, and 10 reported cases inFiji.[115]
Samoan (Gagana Fa'asāmoa) and English are the official languages. Including second-language speakers, there are more speakers of Samoan than English in Samoa.[116]Samoan Sign Language is also commonly used among thedeaf population of Samoa. To emphasize the importance of full inclusion with sign language, elementary Samoan Sign Language was taught to members of the Samoa Police Service, Red Cross Society, and public during the 2017 International Week of the Deaf.[117]
Education in Samoa has proved to be effective as a 2012UNESCO report stated that 99 percent of Samoan adults are literate.[120]
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI)[121] finds that Samoa is fulfilling only 88.0% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education based on the country's level of income.[122] HRMI breaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primary education and secondary education. While taking into consideration Samoa's income level, the nation is achieving 97.7% of what should be possible based on its resources (income) for primary education but only 78.3% for secondary education.[122]
A view ofFalefa Valley from Le Mafa Pass, eastUpoluA young man in'ie toga
Faʻa Sāmoa, or the traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan life and politics. As one of the oldest Polynesian cultures, the fa'a Samoa developed over a period of 3,000 years, withstanding centuries of European influence to maintain its historical customs, social and political systems, andlanguage. Cultural customs such as theSamoa 'ava ceremony are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions including the bestowal ofmatai chiefly titles. Items of great cultural value include the finely woven'ie toga.[123][124]
Samoan mythology includes many gods with creation stories and figures of legend such asTagaloa and the goddess of warNafanua, the daughter ofSaveasi'uleo, ruler of the spirit realmPulotu. Other legends include the well known story ofSina and the Eel which explains the origins of the first coconut tree.
Some Samoans are spiritual and religious, and have subtly adapted the dominant religion of Christianity to 'fit in' with fa'a Samoa and vice versa. Ancient beliefs continue to co-exist side by side with Christianity, particularly in regard to the traditional customs and rituals of fa'a Samoa. The Samoan culture is centred on the principle of vāfealoa'i, the relationships between people. These relationships are based on respect, or fa'aaloalo. When Christianity was introduced in Samoa, most Samoan people converted. Currently 98% of the population identify themselves as Christian.[125]
Some Samoans live a communal way of life, participating in activities collectively. Examples of this are the traditional Samoanfale (houses) which are open with no walls, using blinds made of coconut palm fronds during the night or bad weather.
The Samoansiva dance has unique gentle movements of the body in time to music and tells a story, although the Samoan male dances can be more snappy.[126] Thesasa is also a traditional dance where rows of dancers perform rapidsynchronised movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums(pate) or rolled mats. Another dance performed by males is called thefa'ataupati or the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body. This is believed to have been derived from slapping insects on the body.[citation needed]
The form and construction of traditionalarchitecture of Samoa was a specialised skill byTufuga fai fale that was also linked to other cultural artforms.
As with other Polynesian cultures (Hawaiian,Tahitian andMāori) with significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos. For males, it is called thePe'a and consists of intricate and geometrical patternstattooed that cover areas from the knees up towards the ribs. A male who possesses such a tatau is called asoga'imiti. A Samoan girl orteine is given amalu, which covers the area from just below her knees to her upper thighs.[127]
The lateJohn Kneubuhl, born in American Samoa, was an accomplished playwright and screenwriter and writer. His playThink of Garden premiered in Auckland in 1993 a year after his death, it was directed byNathaniel Lees, is set in 1929 and is about Samoa's struggle for independence.[130][131]
Tusiata Avia is a performance poet. Her first book of poetryWild Dogs Under My Skirt was published by Victoria University Press in 2004.Dan Taulapapa McMullin is an artist and writer.
In music, popular local bands includeThe Five Stars, Penina o Tiafau and Punialava'a.The Yandall Sisters' cover of the songSweet Inspiration reached number one on the New Zealand charts in 1974.
King Kapisi was the first hip hop artist to receive the prestigious New ZealandAPRA Silver Scroll Award in 1999 for his songReverse Resistance. The music video forReverse Resistance was filmed in Savai'i at his villages.
Other successful Samoan hip hop artists include rapperScribe,Dei Hamo,Savage andTha Feelstyle whose music videoSuamalie was filmed in Samoa.
Lemi Ponifasio is a director and choreographer who is prominent internationally with his dance Company MAU.[132]Neil Ieremia's companyBlack Grace has also received international acclaim with tours to Europe and New York.
Hip hop has had a significant impact on Samoan culture. According to Katerina Martina Teaiwa, PhD from the University of Hawaii at Manoa, "Hip hop culture in particular is popular amongst Samoan youth."[133] As in many other countries, hip hop music is popular. In addition, the integration of hip hop elements into Samoan tradition also "testifies to the transferability of the dance forms themselves," and to the "circuits through which people and all their embodied knowledge travel."[134] Dance both in its traditional form and its more modern forms has remained a central cultural currency to Samoans, especially youths.[133]
DirectorSima Urale is a filmmaker. Urale's short filmO Tamaiti won the prestigious Best Short Film at theVenice Film Festival in 1996. Her first feature filmApron Strings opened the 2008NZ International Film Festival. The feature filmSiones Wedding, co-written byOscar Kightley, was financially successful following premieres in Auckland and Apia. The 2011 filmThe Orator was the first ever fully Samoan film, shot in Samoa in the Samoan language with a Samoan cast telling a uniquely Samoan story. Written and directed byTusi Tamasese, it received much critical acclaim and attention at film festivals throughout the world.
The main sports played in Samoa arerugby union,Samoan cricket andnetball. Rugby union is the national football code of Samoa. In Samoan villages, volleyball is also popular.
At club level, there is theNational Provincial Championship andPacific Rugby Cup. They also took home the cup at Wellington and the Hong Kong Rugby Sevens in 2007—for which the Prime Minister of Samoa, also chairman of the national rugby union, Tuila’epa Sa’ilele Malielegaoi, declared a national holiday. They were also theIRB World Sevens Series Champions in 2010 capping a year of achievement for the Samoans, following wins in the US, Australia, Hong Kong and Scotland Sevens tournaments.
Prominent Samoan players includePat Lam andBrian Lima. In addition, many Samoans have played for or are playing forNew Zealand.
The national rugby league team reached the quarter finals of the2013 Rugby League World Cup, the team comprising players from theNRL andSuper League plus domestic players. Many Samoans and New Zealanders or Australians of Samoan descent play in the Super League and National Leagues in Britain, including Francis Meli, Ta'ane Lavulavu of Workington Town, Maurie Fa'asavalu of St Helens, David Fatialofa of Whitehaven and Setaimata Sa, who signed with London Irish rugby club. Other noteworthy players fromNZ andAustralia have represented theSamoan National team. The 2011 domestic Samoan rugby league competition contained 10 teams with plans to expand to 12 in 2012.[141][failed verification][142] Samoa reached the final of the2021 Rugby League World Cup to face Australia.
American football is occasionally played in Samoa, reflecting its wide popularity inAmerican Samoa, where the sport is played under high school sanction. About 30 ethnic Samoans, many from American Samoa, currently play in theNational Football League. A 2002 article fromESPN estimated that a Samoan male (either an American Samoan or a Samoan living in the mainland United States) is 40 times more likely to play in the NFL than a non-Samoan American.[143]
^Since 7 September 2009.[9] Although driving is on the left side of the roadway centre line, Samoa allows cars with steering wheels on either the left or the right side of the vehicle to use the roads.
^Upton, Clive; Kretzschmar, William A. Jr. (2017).The Routledge Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 1179.ISBN978-1-138-12566-7.
^Schellinger, Paul; Salkin, Robert, eds. (1996).International Dictionary of Historic Places, Volume 5: Asia and Oceania. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 724.ISBN1-884964-04-4.
^Rhys Richards, (1992),Samoa's forgotten whaling heritage; American whaling in Samoan waters 1824-1878, Wellington, Lithographic Services, pp.18-20.
^Langdon, Robert (1984)Where the whalers went; an index to the Pacific ports and islands visited by American whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th century, Canberra, Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, p.215.ISBN086784471X
^Mains, P. John; McCarty, Louis Philippe (1906). The Statistician and Economist: Volume 23. p. 249
^Ryden, George Herbert.The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa. New York: Octagon Books, 1975. (Reprint by special arrangement with Yale University Press. Originally published at New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928), p. 574
^Lewthwaite, Gordon R. "Life, Land and Agriculture to Mid-Century," inWestern Samoa. Edited by James W. Fox and Kenneth Brailey Cumberland. Christchurch, New Zealand: Whitcomb & Tombs Ltd. 1962, p. 148
^Templeton, Malcolm (1993).An Eye, An Ear, and a Voice: 50 Years in New Zealand's External Relations, 1943–1993. Wellington: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. p. 1.
^"About Us".samoaland.gov.ws.Archived from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved9 December 2021.
^Twining-Ward, Louise; Butler, Richard (2002). "Implementing STD on a small island: Development and use of sustainable tourism development indicators in Samoa".Journal of Sustainable Tourism.10 (5):363–387.Bibcode:2002JSusT..10..363T.doi:10.1080/09669580208667174.S2CID154442062.
^"Pineapples in Paradise".pacificfarmers.com. 6 February 2019.Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved9 December 2021.
^Henderson, April K. "Dancing Between Islands: Hip Hop and the Samoan Diaspora." In The Vinyl Ain't Final: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, 180–199. London; Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2000
Meleisea, Malama.The Making of Modern Samoa: Traditional Authority and Colonial Administration in the Modern History of Western Samoa. (Suva, 1987) Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific.
Schnee, Dr. Heinrich (former Deputy Governor ofGerman Samoa and last Governor ofGerman East Africa). 1926.German Colonization, Past and Future: The Truth about the German Colonies. London:George Allen & Unwin.
Eustis, Nelson. [1979] 1980.Aggie Grey of Samoa. Adelaide, South Australia: Hobby Investments.ISBN0-9595609-0-4.
Stevenson, Robert Louis (August 2008).A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa. BiblioBazaar.ISBN978-1-4264-0754-3.
Mead, Margaret. 1928,Coming of Age in Samoa: A Study of Adolescence and Sex in Primitive Societies.
Freeman, Derek. 1983.Margaret Mead in Samoa: the Making and Unmaking of an Anthropological Myth.
Urmenyhazi Attila. 2013Samoan & Marquesan Life in Oceania: a probing travelogue.ISBN9780646909127 –NLA6377055.
Mallon, Sean. 2002.Samoan Art and Artists. O Measina a Samoa. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.ISBN0-8248-2675-2
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