Edith Newbold Wharton (/ˈhwɔːrtən/;néeJones; January 24, 1862 – August 11, 1937) was an American writer and designer. Wharton drew upon her insider's knowledge of the upper-class New York "aristocracy" to portray, realistically, the lives and morals of theGilded Age. In 1921, she became the first woman to win thePulitzer Prize for Fiction for her novelThe Age of Innocence. She was inducted into theNational Women's Hall of Fame in 1996.[1] Her other well-known works areThe House of Mirth, the novellaEthan Frome, and several notable ghost stories.
Edith Newbold Jones was born on January 24, 1862, to George Frederic Jones and Lucretia Stevens Rhinelander, at theirbrownstone at 14 West Twenty-third Street inNew York City.[2][3] To her friends and family, she was known as "Pussy Jones".[4] She had two elder brothers, Frederic Rhinelander and Henry Edward.[2] Frederic marriedMary Cadwalader Rawle; their daughter was landscape architectBeatrix Farrand. Edith wasbaptized April 20, 1862,Easter Sunday, atGrace Church.[2]
Wharton's paternal family, the Joneses, were a very wealthy and socially prominent family, having made their money in real estate.[5] The saying "keeping up with the Joneses" is said to refer to her father's family.[6][7] She was related to theRensselaers, the most prestigious of the oldpatroon families, who had received land grants from the former Dutch government of New York and New Jersey. Her father's first cousin wasCaroline Schermerhorn Astor.[8] Fort Stevens, in New York, was named for Wharton's maternal great-grandfather,Ebenezer Stevens, aRevolutionary War hero and general.[9]
Wharton was born during theCivil War. However, in describing her family life, Wharton does not mention the war, except that their travels to Europe after the war were due to the depreciation of American currency.[2][10] From 1866 to 1872, the Jones family visitedFrance,Italy,Germany, andSpain.[11] During her travels, the young Edith became fluent inFrench,German, andItalian. At the age of nine, she suffered fromtyphoid fever, which nearly killed her, while the family was at a spa in theBlack Forest.[2] After the family returned to the United States in 1872, they spent their winters in New York City and their summers inNewport, Rhode Island.[11] While in Europe, she was educated by tutors andgovernesses. She rejected the standards of fashion andetiquette that were expected of young girls at the time, which were intended to allow women to marry well and to be put on display at balls and parties. She considered these fashions superficial and oppressive. Edith wanted more education than she received, so she read from her father's library and from the libraries of her father's friends.[12] Her mother forbade her to read novels until she was married, and Edith obeyed this command.[13]
Wharton wrote and told stories from an early age.[14] When her family moved to Europe and she was just four or five, she started what she called "making up."[14] She invented stories for her family and walked with an open book, turning the pages as if reading while improvising a story.[14] Wharton began writing poetry and fiction as a young girl, and she attempted to write her first novel at the age of 11.[15] Her mother's criticism quashed her ambition, however, and she turned to poetry.[15] She was 15 years old when her first published work appeared, a translation of a German poem "Was die Steine Erzählen" ("What the Stones Tell") byHeinrich Karl Brugsch, for which she was paid $50. Her family did not want her name to appear in print, since writing was not considered a proper occupation for a society woman of her time. Consequently, the poem was published under the name of a friend's father, E. A. Washburn, a cousin ofRalph Waldo Emerson, who supported women's education.[16] In 1877, at the age of 15, she secretly wrote anovella,Fast and Loose. In 1878, her father arranged for a collection of two dozen original poems and five translations,Verses, to be privately published.[17] Wharton published a poem under a pseudonym in theNew York World, in 1879.[18] In 1880, she had five poems published anonymously in theAtlantic Monthly, an important literary magazine.[19] Despite these early successes, she was not encouraged by her family or her social circle, and though she continued to write, she did not publish anything more until her poem "The Last Giustiniani" was published inScribner's Magazine in October 1889.[20]
Between 1880 and 1890, Wharton put her writing aside to participate in the social rituals of the New York upper classes. She keenly observed the social changes happening around her, which she later used in her writing.[21] Wharton officially came out as adebutante to society in 1879.[22] She was allowed to bare her shoulders and wear her hair up for the first time at a December dance, which was given by a Society matron, Anna Morton.[22] Wharton began a courtship with Henry Leyden Stevens, the son of Paran Stevens, a wealthy hotelier and real estate investor from rural New Hampshire. His sister, Minnie, marriedArthur Paget.[23] The Jones family did not approve of Stevens.[23]
In the middle of her debutante season, the Jones family returned to Europe in 1881 for her father's health.[24] Still, her father, George Frederic Jones, died of a stroke in Cannes in 1882.[25] Stevens was with the Jones family in Europe during this time.[24] After returning to the United States with her mother, Wharton continued her courtship with Stevens, announcing their engagement in August 1882.[24] The month the two were to marry, the engagement ended.[26]
Wharton's mother, Lucretia Stevens Rhinelander Jones, moved back to Paris in 1883, and she lived there until her death in 1901.[10]
On April 29, 1885,[27] at the age of 23, Wharton married Edward Robbins (Teddy) Wharton, who was 12 years her senior, at theTrinity Chapel Complex in Manhattan.[28][29] From a well-established Boston family, he was a sportsman and a gentleman of the same social class and shared her love of travel. The Whartons set up house at Pencraig Cottage in Newport.[30] In 1893, they bought a house named Land's End, on the other side of Newport, for $80,000, and moved into it.[30] Wharton decorated Land's End, with the help of designerOgden Codman. In 1897, the Whartons purchased their New York home, 884Park Avenue.[31] Between 1886 and 1897, they traveled overseas, in the period from February to June, mostly visiting Italy but also Paris and England.[31] From her marriage onwards, three interests came to dominate Wharton's life: American houses, writing, and Italy.[30]
From the late 1880s until 1902, Teddy Wharton suffered from chronic depression. The couple, then, ceased their extensive travel.[32] At that time, his depression became more debilitating, after which they lived almost exclusively at their estate,The Mount, in Lenox, Massachusetts. During those same years, Wharton, herself, was said to suffer from asthma and periods of depression.[33]
In 1908, Teddy Wharton's mental condition was determined to be incurable. In that year, Wharton began an affair withMorton Fullerton, an author, and foreign correspondent forThe Times of London, in whom she found an intellectual partner.[34] She divorced Edward Wharton, in 1913, after 28 years of marriage.[32] Around the same time, she was beset with harsh literary criticism from thenaturalist school of writers.
In addition to novels, Wharton wrote at least 85 short stories.[12] She was also agarden designer, aninterior designer, and a taste-maker of her time. She wrote several design books, including her first major published work,The Decoration of Houses (1897), co-authored byOgden Codman. Another of her "home and garden" books is the generously illustratedItalian Villas and Their Gardens of 1904, illustrated byMaxfield Parrish.
Over the course of her life, she crossed the Atlantic 60 times.[35] In Europe, her primary destinations were Italy, France, and England. She also went to Morocco. She wrote many books about her travels, includingItalian Backgrounds andA Motor-Flight through France.
Her husband, Edward Wharton, shared her love of travel and for many years, they spent at least four months of each year abroad, mainly in Italy. Their friend, Egerton Winthrop, accompanied them on many journeys there.[36] In 1888, the Whartons and their friend, James Van Alen, took a cruise through theAegean islands. Wharton was 26. The trip cost the Whartons $10,000 and lasted four months.[37] She kept a travel journal during this trip that was thought to be lost, but was later published asThe Cruise of the Vanadis, now considered her earliest known travel writing.[38]
Land's End, Newport, Rhode Island
In 1897, Edith Wharton purchased Land's End in Newport, Rhode Island, fromRobert Livingston Beeckman, a former U.S. Open Tennis Championship runner-up who became governor of Rhode Island. At the time, Wharton described the main house as "incurably ugly." Wharton agreed to pay $80,000 for the property, and she spent thousands more to alter the home's facade, decorate the interior, and landscape the grounds.
In 1902, Wharton designedThe Mount, her estate inLenox, Massachusetts, which survives, today, as an example of her design principles. She wrote several of her novels there, includingThe House of Mirth (1905), the first of many chronicles of life in old New York. At The Mount, she entertained the cream of American literary society, including her close friend, novelistHenry James, who described the estate as "a delicate French chateau mirrored in a Massachusetts pond".[39] Although she spent many months traveling in Europe nearly every year with her friend Egerton Winthrop (a descendant ofJohn Winthrop), The Mount was her primary residence until 1911.[37] When living there and while traveling abroad, Wharton was usually driven to appointments by her longtimechauffeur and friend Charles Cook, a native of nearbySouth Lee, Massachusetts.[40][41] When her marriage deteriorated, she decided to move permanently to France, living first at 53 Rue de Varenne,Paris, in an apartment that belonged toGeorge Washington Vanderbilt II.
Wharton was preparing to vacation for the summer whenWorld War I broke out. Though many fled Paris, she moved back to her Paris apartment on the Rue de Varenne and for four years was a tireless and ardent supporter of the French war effort.[42] One of the first causes she undertook, in August 1914, was the opening of a workroom for unemployed women. Here, they were fed and paid one franc a day. What began with 30 women soon doubled to 60 women and their sewing business began to thrive.[43] When theGermans invaded Belgium in the fall of 1914 and Paris was flooded with Belgian refugees, she helped to set up the American Hostels for Refugees, which managed to get them shelter, meals, and clothes, and eventually created an employment agency to help them find work.[44] She collected more than $100,000 on their behalf.[45] In early 1915, she organized the Children of Flanders Rescue Committee, which gave shelter to nearly 900 Belgian refugees who had fled when their homes were bombed by the Germans.[46]
Aided by her influential connections in the French government, she and her long-time friendWalter Berry (then president of the American Chamber of Commerce in Paris) were among the few foreigners in France allowed to travel to the front lines during World War I. She and Berry made five journeys between February and August 1915, which Wharton described in a series of articles that were first published inScribner's Magazine and later asFighting France: From Dunkerque to Belfort, which became an American bestseller.[47][48] Travelling by car, Wharton and Berry drove through the war zone, viewing one devastated French village after another. She visited the trenches and was within earshot of artillery fire. She wrote, "We woke to a noise of guns closer and more incessant, and when we went out into the streets, it seemed as if, overnight, a new army had sprung out of the ground".[49]
Throughout the war, she worked in charitable efforts for refugees, the injured, the unemployed, and the displaced. She was a "heroic worker on behalf of her adopted country".[50] On April 18, 1916,Raymond Poincaré, then-President of France, appointed her Chevalier of theLegion of Honour, the fifth class of the country's highest honour, in recognition of her dedication to the war effort.[45][51] Her relief work included setting up workrooms for unemployed French women, organizing concerts to provide work for musicians, raising tens of thousands of dollars for the war effort, and openingtuberculosis hospitals. In 1915, Wharton edited a charity benefit volume,The Book of the Homeless, which included essays, art, poetry, and musical scores by many major contemporary European and American artists, includingHenry James,Joseph Conrad,William Dean Howells,Anna de Noailles,Jean Cocteau, andWalter Gay, among others. Wharton proposed the book to her publisher, Scribner's, handled the business arrangements, lined up contributors, and translated the French entries into English.Theodore Roosevelt wrote a two-page introduction, in which he praised Wharton's effort and urged Americans to support the war.[52] She also kept up her own work, continuing to write novels, short stories, and poems, as well as reporting forThe New York Times and keeping up her enormous correspondence.[53] Wharton urged Americans to support the war effort and encouraged America to enter the war.[54] She wrote the popular romantic novel,Summer in 1917, the war novella,The Marne, in 1918, andA Son at the Front, in 1919 (published 1923). When the war ended, she watched the Victory Parade from the Champs Elysees' balcony of a friend's apartment. After four years of intense effort, she decided to leave Paris for the quiet of the countryside. Wharton settled 10 mi (16 km) north of Paris inSaint-Brice-sous-Forêt, buying an 18th-century house on seven acres of land that she called Pavillon Colombe. She lived there, in summer and autumn, for the rest of her life, spending winters and springs on the French Riviera at Sainte Claire du Vieux Chateau inHyères.[55]
Wharton was a committed supporter ofFrench imperialism, describing herself as a "rabid imperialist", and the war solidified her political views.[56] After the war, she traveled to Morocco, as the guest of Resident GeneralHubert Lyautey and wrote the bookIn Morocco, full of praise for the French administration, Lyautey, and particularly, his wife.
During the post-war years, she divided her time betweenHyères andProvence, where she finishedThe Age of Innocence, in 1920. She returned to the United States only once, after the war, to receive an honorary doctorate from Yale University in 1923.
Wharton was friend and confidante to many prominent intellectuals of her time: Henry James,Sinclair Lewis,Jean Cocteau, andAndré Gide were all her guests, at one time or another. Theodore Roosevelt,Bernard Berenson, andKenneth Clark were valued friends, as well. Through her friendship with Clark she became the godmother of his son,Colin.[60] Particularly notable was her meeting withF. Scott Fitzgerald, described by the editors of her letters as "one of the better known failed encounters in the American literary annals." She spoke fluent French, Italian, and German, and many of her books were published in both French and English.
In 1934, Wharton'sautobiography,A Backward Glance, was published. In the view of Judith E. Funston, writing on Edith Wharton inAmerican National Biography,
What is most notable aboutA Backward Glance, however, is what it does not tell: her criticism of Lucretia Jones [her mother], her difficulties with Teddy, and her affair with Morton Fullerton, which did not come to light until her papers, deposited in Yale'sBeinecke Rare Book Room and Manuscript Library, were opened in 1968.[61]
On June 1, 1937, Wharton was at her French country home (shared with architect and interior decoratorOgden Codman), where she was at work on a revised edition ofThe Decoration of Houses, when she suffered a heart attack and collapsed.[62]
She died of astroke on August 11, 1937, atLe Pavillon Colombe, her 18th-century house onRue de Montmorency inSaint-Brice-sous-Forêt. She died at 5:30 p.m., but her death was not known in Paris. At her bedside was her friend,Mrs. Royall Tyler.[63] Wharton was buried in the American Protestant section of theCimetière des Gonards in Versailles, "with all the honors owed a war hero and a chevalier of the Legion of Honor ... a group of some one hundred friends sang a verse of the hymn 'O Paradise'..."[64]
Despite not publishing her first novel until she was forty, Wharton became an extraordinarily productive writer. In addition toher 15 novels, seven novellas, and eighty-five short stories, she published poetry, books on design, travel, literary and cultural criticism, and a memoir.[65]
In 1873, Wharton wrote ashort story and gave it to her mother to read. Stinging from her mother's critique, Wharton decided to write onlypoetry. While she constantly sought her mother's approval and love, she rarely received either, and their relationship was a troubled one.[66] Before she was 15, Wharton wroteFast and Loose (1877). In her youth, she wrote about society. Her centralthemes came from her experiences with her parents. She was very critical of her work and wrote public reviews criticizing it. She also wrote about her own experiences with life. "Intense Love's Utterance" is a poem written about Henry Stevens.[37]
In 1889, she sent out three poems for publication, toScribner's,Harper's andCentury.Edward L. Burlingame published "The Last Giustiniani" forScribner's. It was not until Wharton was 29 that her firstshort story was published: "Mrs. Manstey's View" had very little success, and it took her more than a year to publish another story. She completed "The Fullness of Life", following her annual European trip with Teddy. Burlingame was critical of this story, but Wharton did not want to make edits to it. This story, along with many others, speaks about her marriage. She sentBunner Sisters to Scribner's, in 1892. Burlingame wrote back that it was too long for Scribner's to publish. This story is believed to be based on an experience she had as a child. It did not see publication until 1916, and it is included in the collection calledXingu.After a visit with her friend,Paul Bourget, she wrote "The Good May Come" and "The Lamp of Psyche". "The Lamp of Psyche" was acomical story, with verbal wit and sorrow. After "Something Exquisite" was rejected by Burlingame, she lost confidence in herself. She startedtravel writing, in 1894.[37]
In 1901, Wharton wrote a two-act play calledMan of Genius. This play was about an English man who was having an affair with his secretary. The play was rehearsed but was never produced. Another 1901 play,The Shadow of a Doubt, which also came close to being staged but fell through, was thought to be lost, until it was discovered, in 2017. It had a radio adaptation broadcast on BBC Radio 3, in 2018.[67] It wouldn't be until 2023, over a century later, that the world stage premiere took place inCanada at theShaw Festival,[68] directed by Peter Hinton-Davis.
She collaborated withMarie Tempest to write another play, but the two only completed four acts, before Marie decided she was no longer interested in costume plays. One of her earliest literary endeavors (1902) was the translation of the playEs Lebe das Leben ("The Joy of Living"), by Hermann Sudermann.The Joy of Living was criticized for its title, because the heroine swallows poison, at the end, and was a short-livedBroadway production. It was, however, a successful book.[37]
Many of Wharton's novels are characterized by subtle use ofdramatic irony. Having grown up in upper-class, late-19th-century society, Wharton became one of its most astute critics, in such works asThe House of Mirth andThe Age of Innocence.
Versions of her mother, Lucretia Jones, often appeared in Wharton's fiction. BiographerHermione Lee described it as "one of the most lethal acts of revenge ever taken by a writing daughter."[25] In her memoir,A Backward Glance, Wharton describes her mother as indolent, spendthrift, censorious, disapproving, superficial, icy, dry and ironic.[25]
Wharton's writings often dealt with themes such as "social and individual fulfillment, repressed sexuality, and the manners of old families and the new elite."[69]Maureen Howard, editor ofEdith Wharton: Collected Stories, notes several recurring themes in Wharton's short stories, including confinement and attempts at freedom, the morality of the author, critiques of intellectual pretension, and the "unmasking" of the truth.[70] Wharton's writing also explored themes of "social mores and social reform" as they relate to the "extremes and anxieties of the Gilded Age".[69]
A key recurring theme in Wharton's writing is the relationship between the house as a physical space and its relationship to its inhabitant's characteristics and emotions. Maureen Howard argues "Edith Wharton conceived of houses, dwelling places, in extended imagery of shelter and dispossession. Houses – their confinement and their theatrical possibilities ... they are never mere settings."[70]
The Hermit and the Wild Woman and Other Stories, 1908
Tales of Men and Ghosts, 1910
Xingu and Other Stories, 1916
"Xingu"; "Coming Home"; "Autres Temps ..."; "Kerfol"; "The Long Run"; "The Triumph of Night"; "The Choice"; "Bunner Sisters"
Here and Beyond, 1926
Certain People, 1930
Human Nature, 1933
The World Over, 1936
Ghosts, 1937
"All Souls'"; "The Eyes"; "Afterward"; "The Lady's Maid's Bell"; "Kerfol"; "The Triumph of Night"; "Miss Mary Pask"; "Bewitched"; "Mr. Jones"; "Pomegranate Seed"; "A Bottle of Perrier"
"Roman Fever"; "Xingu"; "The Other Two"; "Souls Belated"; "The Angel at the Grave"; "The Last Asset"; "After Holbein"; "Autres Temps"
Madame de Treymes and Others: Four Novelettes, 1970
"The Touchstone"; "Sanctuary"; "Madame de Treymes"; "Bunner Sisters"
The Ghost Stories of Edith Wharton, 1973
"The Lady's Maid's Bell"; "The Eyes"; "Afterward"; "Kerfol"; "The Triumph of Night"; "Miss Mary Pask"; "Bewitched"; "Mr Jones"; "Pomegranate Seed"; "The Looking Glass"; "All Souls"
The Collected Stories of Edith Wharton, 1998(Carroll & Graf Publishers; paperback, 640 pages)
"The Pelican"; "The Other Two"; "The Mission of Jane"; "The Reckoning"; "The Last Asset"; "The Letters"; "Autres Temps ..."; "The Long Run"; "After Holbein"; "Atrophy"; "Pomegranate Seed"; "Her Son"; "Charm Incorporated"; "All Souls"; "The Lamp of Psyche"; "A Journey"; "The Line of Least Resistance"; "The Moving Finger"; "Expiation"; "Les Metteurs en Scene"; "Full Circle"; "The Daunt Diana"; "Afterward"; "The Bolted Door"; "The Temperate Zone"; "Diagnosis"; "The Day of the Funeral"; "Confession"
The New York Stories of Edith Wharton, 2007 paperback 452 pages, NYREV publishers
"Mrs. Manstey's View"; "That Good May Come"; "The Portrait"; "A Cup of Cold Water"; "A Journey"; "The Rembrandt"; "The Other Two"; "The Quicksand"; "The Dilettante"; "The Reckoning"; "Expiation"; "The Pot-Boiler"; "His Father's Son"; "Full Circle"; "Autres Temps"; "The Long Run"; "After Holbein"; "Diagnosis"; "Pomegranate Seed"; "Roman Fever"
The Marriage Playground, a 1929 talking film adaptation of the 1928 novelThe Children directed forParamount Studios by Lothar Mendes, starring rising starFredric March in leading role (as Martin Boyne), Mary Brian (as Judith Wheater), and Kay Francis (as Lady Wrench).
Strange Wives, a 1934 film adaptation of the 1934 short storyBread Upon the Waters directed forUniversal byRichard Thorpe, starring Roger Pryor (as Jimmy King), June Clayworth (as Nadja), and Esther Ralston (as Olga). It is considered to be alost film.
The Old Maid, a 1939 film adaptation of the 1924 short novella directed by Edmund Goulding starringBette Davis.
A 1944 film version of the 1911 novelEthan Frome starringJoan Crawford was proposed, but never came to fruition.[78]
The Touchstone, a live broadcast on CBS April 1951. First Wharton adaptation on television.
"Grey Reminder"—the April 30, 1951 episode ofNBC'sLights Out—is an adaptation of Wharton's story, "The Pomegranate Seed", starringBeatrice Straight,John Newland, Helene Dumas and Parker McCormick.[80][81]
Looking Back, a 1981 TV US loose adaptation of two biographies of Edith Wharton:A Backward Glance, Wharton's own 1934 autobiography &Edith Wharton, a 1975 biography byR.W.B. Lewis (1976Bancroft Prize-winner).
The House of Mirth was adapted as a play in 1906 by Edith Wharton andClyde Fitch.[83][84]
The Age of Innocence was adapted as a play in 1928.Katharine Cornell played the role of Ellen Olenska.
The Old Maid was adapted for the stage byZoë Akins in 1934. It was staged byGuthrie McClintic and starredJudith Anderson andHelen Menken.[85] The play was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in May 1935.[86] When published, the play had both Akins and Wharton's names on the copyright.[87]
Shadow of a Doubt made its world stage premiere in 2023 directed by Peter Hinton-Davis produced by theShaw Festival. The show was designed by Gillian Gallow (Set & Costume) Bonnie Beecher (Lighting) and projections by mixed media artistHAUI (Live Video). The show starred Katherine Gautier as Kate Derwent.[88]
Edith Wharton is mentioned in the HBO television seriesEntourage in the 2007 third season's 13th episode: Vince is handed a screenplay for Wharton'sThe Glimpses of the Moon by Amanda, his new agent, for a film to be directed bySam Mendes. In the same episode, period films of Wharton's work are lampooned by agentAri Gold, who says that all her stories are "about a guy who likes a girl, but he can't have sex with her for five years, because those were the times!"Carla Gugino, who plays Amanda, was the protagonist of the BBC-PBS adaptation ofThe Buccaneers (1995), one of her early jobs.
Gilmore Girls makes various witty references to Wharton throughout the series. In season 1, episode 6 called "Rory's Birthday Parties", Lorelei jokingly says, "Edith Wharton would be proud", referring to Emily's extravagant birthday party for Rory. InGilmore Girls: A Year in the Life the tradition continues as Lorelei quips Emily with a Wharton mention in the first episode.
In a 2009 episode ofGossip Girl called "The Age of Dissonance", characters put on a production of a play version ofThe Age of Innocence and find their personal lives mirroring the play.
"Edith Wharton's Journey" is a radio adaptation, for the NPR seriesRadio Tales, of the short story "A Journey" from Edith Wharton's collectionThe Greater Inclination.
The American singer and songwriterSuzanne Vega paid homage to Edith Wharton in her song "Edith Wharton's Figurines" on her 2007 studio albumBeauty & Crime.
^"In Argonne", Chapter 2 ofFighting France: From Dunkerque to Belfort, published inEdith Wharton Abroad: Selected Travel Writings, 1888–1920, p. 150. New York: St. Martin's Griffin.ISBN0-312-16120-4
^Wegener, Fredrick (December 2000). ""Rabid Imperialist"': Edith Wharton and the Obligations of Empire in Modern American Fiction".American Literature.72 (4):783–812.doi:10.1215/00029831-72-4-783.S2CID162758720.
^"Reader's Almanac: A Controversial Pulitzer Prize Brings Edith Wharton and Sinclair Lewis Together." Library of America, June 28, 2011. Web. March 11, 2015.
The Letters of Edith Wharton (R. W. B. Lewis and Nancy Lewis, eds.)ISBN0-02-034400-7, particularly the editorial introductions to the chronological sections, especially for 1902–07, 1911–14, 1919–27, and 1928–37, and the editorial footnotes to the letter to F. Scott Fitzgerald (June 8, 1925)
Severi, Rita, Edith Wharton una scrittrice americana in Italia con poesie e testi inediti, Milano, Mursia, Nov. 2023 ISBN 978-88- 425 6538 -3
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