| Edicts of Ashoka | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Material | Rocks, pillars, stone slabs |
| Created | 3rd century BCE |
| Present location | Nepal,India,Pakistan,Afghanistan,Bangladesh |
| Location | |
 Location of theMinor Rock Edicts (Edicts 1, 2 & 3) Other inscriptions often classified as Minor Rock Edicts Location of theMajor Rock Edicts Location of theMinor Pillar Edicts Original location of theMajor Pillar Edicts Capital cities | |
| Part of a series on the |
| Edicts of Ashoka |
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TheEdicts of Ashoka are a collection of more than thirty inscriptions on thePillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, attributed to EmperorAshoka of theMaurya Empire who ruled most of theIndian subcontinent from 268 BCE to 232 BCE.[1] These inscriptions were dispersed throughout the areas of modern-dayIndia,Bangladesh,Nepal,Afghanistan andPakistan, and provide the first tangible evidence ofBuddhism. The Edicts are the earliest written and datable texts from India, and, since they were inscribed on stone, we have the added benefit of having them exactly as they were originally inscribed. Earlier texts, such as the Vedic texts, were all composed and handed down orally until later dates.[2]
Ashoka used the expressionDhaṃmaLipi (Prakrit in theBrahmi script:𑀥𑀁𑀫𑀮𑀺𑀧𑀺, "Inscriptions of theDharma") to describe his own Edicts.[3] The edicts describe in detailAshoka's policy on dhamma, an earnest attempt to solve some of the problems that a complex society faced.[4] According to the edicts, the extent of his promotion ofdhamma during this period reached as far as the Greeks in theMediterranean region. While the inscriptions mention the conversion of Ashoka to Buddhism, thedhamma that he promotes is largely ecumenical and non-sectarian in nature. As historian Romila Thapar relates:
In his edicts Aśoka defines the main principles ofdhamma as non-violence, tolerance of all sects and opinions, obedience to parents, respect to brahmins and other religious teachers and priests, liberality toward friends, humane treatment of servants and generosity towards all. It suggests a general ethic of behaviour to which no religious or social group could object. It also could act as a focus of loyalty to weld together the diverse strands that made up the empire. Interestingly, the Greek versions of these edicts translatedhamma aseusebeia (piety) and no mention is made anywhere of the teachings of the Buddha, as would be expected if Aśoka had been propagating Buddhism.’[5]
The inscriptions show his efforts to develop thedhamma throughout his empire. Although Buddhism as well asGautama Buddha are mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral precepts rather than specific religious practices or the philosophical dimension of Buddhism. These were located in public places and were meant for people to read.
In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as "Beloved of the Gods" (Devanampiya). The identification of Devanampiya with Ashoka was confirmed by an inscription discovered in 1915 by C. Beadon, a British gold-mining engineer, atMaski, a town inMadras Presidency (present dayRaichur district,Karnataka). Another minor rock edict, found at the villageGujarra inGwalior State (present dayDatia district ofMadhya Pradesh), also used the name of Ashoka together with his titles:DevanampiyaPiyadasi Asokaraja.[6] The inscriptions found in the central and eastern part of India were written inMagadhi Prakrit using theBrahmi script, whilePrakrit using theKharoshthi script,Greek andAramaic were used in the northwest. These edicts were deciphered by Britisharchaeologist and historianJames Prinsep.[7]
The inscriptions revolve around a few recurring themes: Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spreaddhamma, his moral and religious precepts, and his social andanimal welfare program. The edicts were based on Ashoka's ideas on administration and behavior of people towards one another and religion.
Besides a few inscriptions inGreek andAramaic (which were discovered only in the 20th century), the Edicts were mostly written in theBrahmi script and sometimes in theKharoshthi script in the northwest, two Indian scripts which had both become extinct around the 5th century CE, and were yet undeciphered at the time the Edicts were discovered and investigated in the 19th century.[9][10]
The first successful attempts at deciphering the ancientBrahmi script were made in 1836 by Norwegian scholarChristian Lassen, who used the bilingual Greek-Brahmi coins ofIndo-Greek kingAgathocles to correctly and securely identify several Brahmi letters.[10] The task was then completed byJames Prinsep, an archaeologist, philologist, and official of theEast India Company, who was able to identify the rest of the Brahmi characters, with the help ofMajor Cunningham.[10][11] In a series of results that he published in March 1838 Prinsep was able to translate the inscriptions on a large number of rock edicts found around India, and to provide, according toRichard Salomon, a "virtually perfect" rendering of the full Brahmi alphabet.[12][7] The edicts inBrahmi script mentioned a KingDevanampriya Piyadasi which Prinsep initially assumed was a Sri Lankan king.[13] He was then able to associate this title with Ashoka on the basis ofPali script from Sri Lanka communicated to him byGeorge Turnour.[14][15]
TheKharoshthi script, written from right to left, and associated withAramaic, was also deciphered byJames Prinsep in parallel withChristian Lassen, using the bilingual Greek-Kharoshthi coinage of theIndo-Greek andIndo-Scythian kings.[16][17] "Within the incredibly brief space of three years (1834-37) the mystery of both the Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts (were unlocked), the effect of which was instantly to remove the thick crust of oblivion which for many centuries had concealed the character and the language of the earliest epigraphs".[16][18]
The Edicts are divided into four categories, according to their size (Minor or Major) and according to their medium (Rock or Pillar). Chronologically, the minor inscriptions tend to precede the larger ones, while rock inscriptions generally seem to have been started earlier than the pillar inscriptions:
TheMinor Rock Edicts (in which Ashoka is sometimes named in person, as inMaski andGujarra) as well as theMinor Pillar Edicts are very religious in their content: they mention extensively theBuddha (and even previousBuddhas as in theNigali Sagar inscription), theSangha, Buddhism and Buddhist scriptures (as in theBairat Temple Edict).[22]
On the contrary, theMajor Rock Edicts andMajor Pillar Edicts are essentially moral and political in nature: they never mention the Buddha or explicit Buddhist teachings, but are preoccupied with order, proper behavior and non violence under the general concept of "Dharma", and they also focus on the administration of the state and positive relations with foreign countries as far as theHellenisticMediterranean of the mid-3rd century BCE.[22]
, center of the top line) in conjunction with the title "Devanampriya" (Beloved-of-the-gods).TheMinor Rock Edicts of Ashoka (r.269-233 BCE) are rock inscriptions which form the earliest part of the Edicts of Ashoka. They predateAshoka's Major Rock Edicts.
Chronologically, the first known edict, sometimes classified as a Minor Rock Edict, is theKandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription, in Greek and in Aramaic, written in the 10th year of his reign (260 BCE) at the border of his empire with theHellenistic world, in the city ofOld Kandahar in modernAfghanistan.[19][20][21]
Ashoka then made the first edicts in the Indian language, written in theBrahmi script, from the 11th year of his reign (according to his own inscription, "two and a half years after becoming a secular Buddhist", i.e. two and a half years at least after returning from theKalinga conquest of the eighth year of his reign, which is the starting point for his remorse towards the horrors of the war, and his gradual conversion to Buddhism). The texts of the inscriptions are rather short, the technical quality of the engraving of the inscriptions is generally very poor, and generally very inferior to the pillar edicts dated to the years 26 and 27 of Ashoka's reign.[23]
There are several slight variations in the content of these edicts, depending on location, but a common designation is usually used, with Minor Rock Edict N°1 (MRE1)[24] and a Minor Rock Edict N°2 (MRE2, which does not appear alone but always in combination with Edict N°1), the different versions being generally aggregated in most translations. TheMaski version of Minor Rock Edict No.1 is historically particularly important in that it confirmed the association of the title "Devanampriya" with the name "Asoka", thereby clarifying the historical author of all these inscriptions.[25][26] In theGujarra version of Minor Rock Edict No.1 also, the name of Ashoka is used together with his full title:DevanampiyaPiyadasi Asokaraja.[6]
There is also a unique Minor Rock Edict No.3, discovered next toBairat Temple, for the Buddhist clergy, which gives a list of Buddhist scriptures (most of them unknown today) which the clergy should study regularly.[28]
A few other inscriptions of Ashoka inAramaic, which are not strictly edicts, but tend to share a similar content, are sometimes also categorized as "Minor Rock Edicts". The dedicatory inscriptions of theBarabar caves are also sometimes classified among the Minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka.
The Minor Rock Edicts can be found throughout the territory of Ashoka, including in the frontier area near theHindu Kush, and are especially numerous in the southern, newly conquered, frontier areas ofKarnataka and southernAndhra Pradesh.
TheMinor Pillar Edicts of Ashoka refer to five separate minor Edicts inscribed on columns, thePillars of Ashoka.[29] These edicts are preceded chronologically by the Minor Rock Edicts and may have been made in parallel with the Major Rock Edicts.
The inscription technique is generally very poor compared for example to the laterMajor Pillar Edicts, however the Minor Pillar Edicts are often associated with some of the artistically most sophisticated pillar capitals of Ashoka, such as theLion Capital of Ashoka, which crowned theSarnath Minor Pillar Edict, or the very similar, but less well-preservedSanchi lioncapital, which crowned the very clumsily inscribed Schism Edict of Sanchi.[30] According to Irwin, the Brahmi inscriptions on the Sarnath and Sanchi pillars were made by inexperienced Indian engravers at a time when stone engraving was still new in India, whereas the very refined Sarnath capital itself was made under the tutelage of craftsmen from the formerAchaemenid Empire, trained in Perso-Hellenistic statuary and employed by Ashoka.[31] This suggests that the most sophisticated capitals were actually the earliest in the sequence ofAshokan pillars and that style degraded over a short period of time.[30]
These edicts were probably made at the beginning of the reign of Ashoka (reigned 268-232 BCE), from the year 12 of his reign, that is, from 256 BCE.[32]
The Minor Pillar Edicts are the Schism Edict, warning of punishment for dissent in theSamgha, the Queen's Edict, and theRummindei Edict as well as theNigali Sagar Edict which record Ashoka's visits and Buddhist dedications in the area corresponding to today'sNepal. The Rummindei and Nigali Sagar edicts, inscribed on pillars erected by Ashoka later in his reign (19th and 20th year) display a high level of inscriptional technique with a good regularity in the lettering.[31]
TheMajor Rock Edicts ofAshoka refer to 14 separate major Edicts, which are significantly detailed and extensive.[33] These Edicts were concerned with practical instructions in running the empire such as the design of irrigation systems and descriptions of Ashoka's beliefs in peaceful moral behavior. They contain little personal detail about his life.[34] These edicts are preceded chronologically by the Minor Rock Edicts.
Three languages were used,Prakrit,Greek andAramaic. The edicts are composed innon-standardized and archaic forms ofPrakrit. Prakrit inscriptions were written inBrahmi andKharosthi scripts, which even a commoner could read and understand. The inscriptions found in the area of Pakistan are in theKharoshthi script. Other Edicts are written in Greek or Aramaic. TheKandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka (including portions of Edict No.13 and No.14) is in Greek only, and originally probably contained all the Major Rock Edicts 1-14.[35]
The Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka are inscribed on large rocks, except for the Kandahar version in Greek (Kandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka), written on a stone plaque belonging to a building. The Major Edicts are not located in the heartland of Mauryan territory, traditionally centered onBihar, but on the frontiers of the territory controlled by Ashoka.[36]
TheMajor Pillar Edicts of Ashoka refer to seven separate major Edicts inscribed on columns, thePillars of Ashoka, which are significantly detailed and extensive.[29]
These edicts are preceded chronologically by the Minor Rock Edicts and the Major Rock Edicts, and constitute the most technically elegant of the inscriptions made by Ashoka. They were made at the end of his reign, from the years 26 and 27 of his reign, that is, from 237 to 236 BCE.[32] Chronologically they follow the fall ofSeleucid power inCentral Asia and the related rise of theParthian Empire and the independentGreco-Bactrian Kingdom circa 250 BCE. Hellenistic rulers are not mentioned anymore in these last edicts, as they only appear inMajor Rock Edict No.13 (and to a lesser extent Major Rock Edict No.2), which can be dated to about the 14th year of the reign of Ashoka circa 256–255.[37] The last Major Pillar Edicts (Edict No.7) is testamental in nature, making a summary of the accomplishments of Ashoka during his life.
The Major Pillar Edicts of Ashoka were exclusively inscribed on thePillars of Ashoka or fragments thereof, atKausambi (nowAllahabad Pillar),Topra Kalan,Meerut,Lauriya-Araraj,Lauria Nandangarh,Rampurva (Champaran), and fragments of these in Aramaic (Kandahar, Edict No.7 andPul-i-Darunteh, Edict No.5 or No.7 inAfghanistan)[38][39] However several pillars, such as the bull pillar ofRampurva, or the pillar ofVaishali do not have inscriptions, which, together with their lack of proper foundation stones and their particular style, led some authors to suggest that they were in fact pre-Ashokan.[40][41]
The Major Pillar Edicts (excluding the two fragments of translations found in modernAfghanistan) are all located inCentral India.[42]
The Pillars of Ashoka are stylistically very close to an important Buddhist monument, also built by Ashoka inBodh Gaya, at the location where theBuddha had reached enlightenment some 200 years earlier: theDiamond Throne.[43][44] The sculpted decorations on the Diamond Throne clearly echo the decorations found on the Pillars of Ashoka.[45] The Pillars dated to the end of Ashoka's reign are associated with pillar capitals that tend to be more solemn and less elegant than the earlier capitals, such as those ofSanchi or Sarnath. This led some authors to suggest that the artistic level under Ashoka tended to fall towards the end of his reign.[46]
Three languages were used:Ashokan Prakrit,Greek (the language of the neighbouringGreco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Greek communities in Ashoka's realm) andAramaic (an official language of the formerAchaemenid Empire). The Prakrit displayed local variations, from earlyGandhari language in the northwest, toOld Ardhamagadhi in the east, where it was the "chancery language" of the court.[47] The language level of the Prakrit inscriptions tends to be rather informal or colloquial.[48]
Four scripts were used. Prakrit inscriptions were written in theBrahmi andKharosthi scripts, the latter for the area of modern Pakistan. The Greek and Aramaic inscriptions used their respective scripts, in the northwestern areas of Ashoka's territory, in modernPakistan andAfghanistan.
While most Edicts were inAshokan Prakrit, a few were written in Greek or Aramaic. TheKandahar Rock Inscription is bilingual Greek-Aramaic. TheKandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka is in Greek only, and originally probably contained all the Major Rock Edicts 1-14. The Greek language used in the inscription is of a very high level and displays philosophical refinement. It also displays an in-depth understanding of the political language of the Hellenic world in the 3rd century BCE. This suggests a highly cultured Greek presence in Kandahar at that time.[49]
By contrast, in the rock edicts engraved in southern India in the newly conquered territories ofKarnataka andAndhra Pradesh, Ashoka only used thePrakrit of the North as the language of communication, with theBrahmi script, and not the localDravidian idiom, which can be interpreted as a kind of authoritarianism in respect to the southern territories.[50]
Ashoka's edicts were the first written inscriptions in India after the ancient city ofHarrapa fell to ruin.[51] Due to the influence of Ashoka's Prakrit inscriptions, Prakrit would remain the main inscriptional language for the following centuries, until the rise of inscriptionalSanskrit from the 1st century CE.[48]
The Dharma preached by Ashoka is explained mainly in term of moral precepts, based on the doing of good deeds, respect for others, generosity and purity. The expressions used by Ashoka to express the Dharma, were thePrakrit wordDhaṃma, the Greek wordEusebeia (in theKandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription and theKandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka), and theAramaic wordQsyt ("Truth") (in theKandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription).[52]
Everywhere in the dominions of Dévanampriya Priyadarsina, and of those who are his borderers, such as theCholas, thePandyas, theSatiyaputra, theKéralaputra,Tamraparni, where theYona (Greek) king namedAntiyoka rule, and the other kings who are the neighbours of this Antiyoka, everywhere two kinds of medical treatment were established by King Devanampriya Priyadarsin, (viz.) medical treatment for men and medical treatment for cattle.
(Major Rock Edict No.2),E. Hultzsch translation[53]
The initial translation of this Edict by James Prinsep differs from that ofE. Hultzsch. His translation is as follows:
Everywhere within the conquered province of KingPiyadasi (Ashoka), the beloved of the gods, as well as in the parts occupied by the faithful, such asChola,Pandiya,Satiyaputra, andKeralaputra, even as far asTambapanni (Ceylon) and, moreover, within the dominions theGreek (of whichAntiochus generals are the rulers ) everywhere the heaven-beloved Raja Piyadasi’s double system of medical aid is established- both medical aid for men, and medical aid for animals.
(Major Rock Edict No.2),James Prinsep translation[54]
Dharma is good. And what is Dharma? It is having few faults and many good deeds, mercy, charity, truthfulness and purity. (Major Pillar Edict No.2)[29]
Thus the glory of Dhamma will increase throughout the world, and it will be endorsed in the form of mercy, charity, truthfulness, purity, gentleness, and virtue. (Major Pillar Edict No. 7)[29]
Ashoka's Dharma meant that he used his power to try to make life better for his people and he also tried to change the way people thought and lived. He also thought that dharma meant doing the right thing.
Ashoka showed great concern for fairness in the exercise ofjustice, caution and tolerance in the application of sentences, and regularly pardoned prisoners.
But it is desirable that there should be uniformity in judicial procedure and punishment. This is my instruction from now on. Men who are imprisoned or sentenced to death are to be given three days respite. Thus their relations may plead for their lives, or, if there is no one to plead for them, they may make donations or undertake a fast for a better rebirth in the next life. For it is my wish that they should gain the next world. (Major Pillar Edict No. 4)[29]
In the period [from my consecration] to [the anniversary on which] I had been consecrated twenty-six years, twenty-five releases of prisoners have been made. (Major Pillar Edict No. 5)[29]
The Mauryan Empire was the first Indian empire to unify most of the country and it had a clear-cut policy of exploiting as well as protecting natural resources with specific officials tasked with protection duty. WhenAshoka embracedBuddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished theimperial hunt. He was perhaps the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife. Reference to these can be seen inscribed on the stone edicts.[55][56]
This rescript on morality has been caused to be written by Devanampriya Priyadarsin. Here no living being must be killed and sacrificed. And also no festival meeting must be held. For King Devanampriya Priyadarsin sees much evil in festival meetings. And there are also some festival meetings which are considered meritorious by King Devanampriya Priyadarsin. Formerly in the kitchen of King Devanampriya Priyadarsin many hundred thousands of animals were killed daily for the sake of curry. But now, when this rescript on morality is caused to be written, then only three animals are being killed (daily), (viz.) two peacocks (and) one deer, but even this deer not regularly. But even these three animals shall not be killed (in future). (Major Rock Edict No.1)[57][29]
King Devanampriya Priyadansin speaks thus. (When I had been) anointed twenty-six years, the following animals were declared by me inviolable, viz. parrots, mainas, the aruna, ruddy geese, wild geese, the nandimukha, the gelata, bats, queen-ants, terrapins, boneless fish, the vedaveyaka, the Ganga-puputaka, skate-fish, tortoises and porcupines, squirrels (?), the srimara, bulls set at liberty, iguanas (?), the rhinoceros, white doves, domestic doves, (and) all the quadrupeds which are neither useful nor edible. Those [she-goats], ewes, and sows (which are) either with young or in milk, are inviolable, and also those (of their) young ones (which are) less than six months old. Cocks must not be caponed. Husks containing living animals must not be burnt. Forests must not be burnt either uselessly or in order to destroy (living beings). Living animals must not be fed with (other) living animals.(Major Pillar Edict No.5)[58][29]
King Dévanampriya Priyadarsin speaks thus. Now this progress of morality among men has been promoted by me only in two ways, (viz.) by moral restrictions and by conversion. But among these two, those moral restrictions are of little consequence; by conversion, however, morality is promoted more considerably. Now moral restrictions indeed are these, that I have ordered this, that certain animals are inviolable. But there are also many other moral restrictions which have been imposed by me. By conversion, however, the progress of morality among men has been promoted more considerably, because it leads to abstention from hurting living beings and to abstention from killing animals.(Major Pillar Edict No.7)[59]
In times past, for many hundreds of years, there had ever been promoted the killing of animals and the hurting of living beings, discourtesy to relatives, and discourtesy toSramanas andBrahmanas. But now, in consequence of the practice of morality on the part of King Dévanampriya Priyadarsin, the sound of drums has become the sound of morality, showing the people representations ofaerial chariots, elephants, masses of light, and other divine figures. Such as they had not existed before for many hundreds of years, thus there are now promoted, through the instruction in morality on the part of King Dévanampriya Priyadaréin, abstention from killing animals, abstention from hurting living beings, courtesy to relatives, courtesy to Brahmanas and Sramanas, obedience to mother and father, and to the aged.(Major Rock Edict No.4,Shahbazgarhi)[60]
Ashoka advocated restraint in the number that had to be killed for consumption, protected some of them, and in general condemned violent acts against animals, such ascastration.
However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in imperial hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices then freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[56]
Explicit mentions of Buddhism or the Buddha only appear in theMinor Rock Edicts and theMinor Pillar Edicts.[22] Beyond affirming himself as a Buddhist and spreading the moral virtues of Buddhism, Ashoka also insisted that the word of the Buddha be read and followed, in particular in monastic circles (theSanghas), in a unique edict (Minor Rock Edict No.3), found in front of theBairat Temple[63]
I have been a devotee ("Budha-Shake" in the Maski edict,upāshake in others)[64] for more than two and a half years, but for a year I did not make much progress. Now for more than a year I have drawn closer to theOrder and have become more ardent. (Minor Rock Edict No.1)[29]
TheKing of Magadha, Piyadassi, greets the Order and wishes it prosperity and freedom from care. You know Sirs, how deep is my respect for and faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Samgha [i.e. the Buddhist creed]. Sirs, whatever was spoken by the Lord Buddha was well spoken. (Minor Rock Edict No.3)[29]
These sermons on Dhamma, Sirs - the Excellence of the Discipline, the Lineage of the Noble One, the Future Fears, the Verses of, the Sage, the Sutra of Silence, the Question, of Upatissa, and the Admonition spoken by the Lord Buddha toRahula on the subject of false speech - these sermons on the Dhamma, Sirs, I desire that manymonks andnuns should hear frequently and meditate upon, and likewise laymen and laywomen. (Minor Rock Edict No.3)[29]
Ashoka also expressed his devotion for theBuddhas of the past, such as theKoṇāgamana Buddha, for whom he enlarged astupa in the 14th year of his reign, and made a dedication and set up a pillar during a visit in person in the 20th year of his reign, as described in hisMinor Pillar Edict ofNigali Sagar, in modernNepal.[65][66]
By doing so, there is gain in this world, and in the next there is infinite merit, through the gift of Dhamma. (Major Rock Edict No.11)[29]
It is hard to obtain happiness in this world and the next without extreme love of Dhamma, much vigilance, much obedience, much fear of sin, and extreme energy. (Major Pillar Edict No. 1)[29]
Far from beingsectarian, Ashoka, based on a belief that all religions shared a common, positive essence, encouraged tolerance and understanding of other religions.
The Beloved of the Gods, the King Piyadassi, wishes that all sects may dwell in all places, for all seek self-control and purity of mind. (Major Rock Edict No.7)[29]
For whosoever praises his own sect or blames other sects, — all (this) out of pure devotion to his own sect, (i.e.) with the view of glorifying his own sect, — if he is acting thus, he rather injures his own sect very severely. But concord is meritorious, (i.e.) that they should both hear and obey each other's morals. For this is the desire of Devanampriya, (viz.) that all sects should be both full of learning and pure in doctrine. And those who are attached to their respective (sects), ought to be spoken to (as follows). Devanampriya does not value either gifts or honours so (highly) as (this), (viz.) that a promotion of the essentials of all sects should take place. (Major Rock Edict No.12)[67][29]
According to the edicts, Ashoka took great care of thewelfare of his subjects (human and animal), and those beyond his borders, spreading the use of medicinal treatments, improving roadside facilities for more comfortable travel, and establishing "officers of the faith" throughout his territories to survey the welfare of the population and the propagation of theDharma. The Greek kingAntiochos ("theYona king named Antiyoga" in the text of the Edicts) is also named as a recipient of Ashoka's generosity, together with the other kings neighbouring him.[68]
Everywhere in the dominions of king Devanampriya Priyadarsin and (of those) who (are his) borderers, such as theCholas, thePandyas, theSatiyaputa,[note 1] theKelalaputa,[note 2]Tamraparni, theYona king namedAntiyoga, and the other kings who are the neighbours of this Antiyoga, everywhere two (kinds of) medical treatment were established by King Devanampriya Priyadarsin, (viz.) medical treatment for men and medical treatment for cattle. Wherever there were no herbs beneficial to men and beneficial to cattle, everywhere they were caused to be imported and to be planted. Likewise, wherever there were no roots and fruits, everywhere they were caused to be imported and to be planted. On the roads trees were planted, and wells were caused to be dug for the use of cattle and men. (Major Rock Edict No. 2,Khalsi version)[72][29]
On the roadsbanyan-trees were caused to be planted by me, (in order that) they might afford shade to cattle and men, (and)mango-groves were caused to be planted. And (at intervals) of eight kos wells were caused to be dug by me, and flights of steps (for descending into the water) were caused to be built. Numerous drinking-places were caused to be established by me, here and there, for the enjoyment of cattle and men. [But] this so-called enjoyment (is) [of little consequence]. For with various comforts have the people been blessed both by former kings and by myself. But by me this has been done for the following purpose: that they might conform to that practice of morality. (Major Pillar Edict No.7)[58][29]
Now, in times pastmahamatras (officers) of morality did not exist before. Officers of morality were appointed by me (when I had been) anointed thirteen years. These are occupied with all sects in establishing morality, in promoting morality, and for the welfare and happiness of those who are devoted to morality (even) among theGreeks,Kambojas, andGandharas, and whatever other western borderers (of mine there are). They are occupied with servants and masters, withBrahmanas and Ibhiyas, with the destitute; (and) with the aged, for the welfare and happiness of those who are devoted to morality, (and) in releasing (them) from the fetters (of worldly life). (Major Rock Edict No.5)[73][29]
In a particularly famous Edict, the Rummindei Edict inLumbini,Nepal, Ashoka describes his visit in the 21st year of his reign, and mentions Lumbini as the birthplace of the Buddha. He also, for the first time in historical records, uses the epithet "Sakyamuni" (Sage of theShakyas), to describe the historical Buddha.[74]
| Translation (English) | Transliteration (originalBrahmi script) | Inscription (Prakrit in theBrahmi script) |
|---|---|---|
— TheRummindei Edict, one of theMinor Pillar Edicts of Ashoka.[75] |
— Adapted from transliteration byE. Hultzsch.[76] | .jpg) |
In order to propagate welfare, Ashoka explains that he sent emissaries and medicinal plants to theHellenistic kings as far as the Mediterranean, and to people throughoutIndia, claiming that Dharma had been achieved in all their territories as well. He names the Greek rulers of the time, inheritors of the conquest ofAlexander the Great, fromBactria to as far asGreece andNorth Africa, as recipients of the Dharma, displaying a clear grasp of the political situation at the time.[78][79][80]
Now, it is the conquest by the Dharma that the Beloved of the Gods considers as the best conquest. And this one (the conquest by the Dharma) was won here, on the borders, and even as (far/to the extent of) 600(yojanas or leagues) from here (Panta orKandahar),[81][82] where the kingAntiochos reigns, and beyond where reign the four kingsPtolemy,Antigonos,Magas andAlexander, likewise in the south, where live theCholas, thePandyas, and as far asTamraparni.
— Extract fromMajor Rock Edict No.13.[83]
The distance of 600yojanas (> 2,000 km) corresponds roughly to the distance between the center of India and Greece.[68]
In theGandhari original Antiochos is referred to asAmtiyoge namaYona-raja (lit. "The Greek king by the name of Antiokos"), beyond whom live the four other kings:param ca tena Atiyogena cature 4 rajani Tulamaye nama Amtekine nama Makā nama Alikasudaro nama (lit. "And beyond Antiochus, four kings by the name of Ptolemy, the name of Antigonos, the name of Magas, the name Alexander".[84]
𑀕), refers toAntiochus II Theos (261–246 BCE), King of theSeleucid Empire fromSyria toBactria in the east from 305 to 250 BCE, and was therefore a direct neighbor of Ashoka.[68][85]
𑀱𑀤𑀮) refers toAlexander II ofEpirus (272–258 BCE).[68][85]All the kings mentioned in Ashoka's Major Rock Edict No.13 are famous Hellenistic rulers, contemporary of Ashoka:[68][86]
It is not clear in Hellenic records whether these emissaries were actually received, or had any influence on the Hellenic world. But the existence of the edicts in a very high-level Greek literary and philosophical language testifies to the high sophistication of the Greek community ofKandahar, and to a true communication between Greek intellectuals and Indian thought.[87][88] According to historianLouis Robert, it becomes quite likely that these Kandahar Greeks who were very familiar with Indian culture could in turn transmit Indian ideas to the philosophical circles of the Mediterranean world, inSeleucia,Antioch,Alexandria,Pella orCyrene.[88] He suggests that the famous Ashoka emissaries sent to the Western Hellenistic Courts according to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict No.13 were in fact Greek subjects and citizens of Kandahar, who had the full capacity to carry out these embassies.[88]
Another document, theMahavamsa (XII, 1st paragraph),[89] also states that in the 17th year of his reign, at the end of theThird Buddhist Council, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to eight parts of Southern Asia and the "country of the Yonas" (Greeks) to propagate Buddhism.[90]
Overall, the evidence for the presence of Buddhists in the west from that time is very meager.[91] But some scholars point to the possible presence of Buddhist communities in theHellenistic world, in particular inAlexandria.[92]Dio Chrysostum wrote to Alexandrians that there are "Indians who view the spectacles with you and are with you on all occasions" (Oratio.XXXII.373).[93][94][92] According toPtolemy also, Indians were present in Alexandria, to whom he was much indebted for his knowledge of India (As.Res.III.53).[95]Clement of Alexandria too mentioned the presence of Indians in Alexandria.[96] A possible Buddhist gravestone from thePtolemaic period has been found byFlinders Petrie, decorated with a depiction of what may beDharmachakra andTrishula.[92][97] According to the 11th century Muslim historianAl-Biruni, before the advent ofIslam, Buddhists were present inWestern Asia as far as the frontiers ofSyria.[98][99]
Colonial era scholars such asRhys Davids have attributed Ashoka's claims of "Dharmic conquest" to mere vanity, and expressed disbelief that Greeks could have been in any way influenced by Indian thought.[101]
But numerous authors have noted the parallels betweenBuddhism,Cyrenaicism andEpicureanism, which all strive for a state ofataraxia ("equanimity") away from the sorrows of life.[102][103][104] The positions of philosophers such asHegesias of Cyrene were close toBuddhism, his ideas recalling the Buddhist doctrine of suffering: he lived in the city ofCyrene whereMagas ruled, the same Magas under whom the Dharma prospered according to Ashoka, and he may have been influenced by Ashoka's missionaries.[104][105][106][107]
The religious communities of theEssenes ofPalestine and theTherapeutae ofAlexandria may also have been communities based on the model ofBuddhist monasticism, following Ashoka's missions.[108][109][110] According tosemitologistAndré Dupont-Sommer, speaking about the consequences of Ashoka's proselytism: "It is India which would be, according to us, at the beginning of this vast monastic current which shone with a strong brightness during about three centuries inJudaism itself".[111] This influence would even contribute, according to André Dupont-Sommer, to the emergence ofChristianity: "Thus was prepared the ground on which Christianity, that sect of Jewish origin influenced by theEssenes, which was so quickly and so powerfully to conquer a very large part of the world."[112][109]
Inside India proper, in the empire of Ashoka, many different populations were the object of the emperor's proselytism. Greek communities also lived in the northwest of the Mauryan Empire, currently in Pakistan, notably ancientGandhara, and in the region ofGedrosia, nowadays in Southern Afghanistan, following the conquest and the colonization efforts of Alexander the Great around 323 BCE. These communities therefore seem to have been still significant during the reign of Ashoka. TheKambojas are a people ofCentral Asian origin who had settled first inArachosia andDrangiana (today's southernAfghanistan), and in some of the other areas in the northwestern Indian subcontinent inSindh,Gujarat andSauvira. The Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, theBhojas, the Pitinikas, theAndhras and thePalidas were other people under Ashoka's rule:
Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, theKambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, theBhojas, the Pitinikas, theAndhras and thePalidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Rock Edict No.13 (S. Dhammika)
.png)
𑀮La+𑀺i; pī=𑀧Pa+𑀻ii).
and not "Li"
.[113]
The inscriptions of Ashoka may showAchaemenid influences, including formulaic parallels withAchaemenid inscriptions, presence ofIranian loanwords (inAramaic inscriptions), and the very act of engraving edicts on rocks and mountains (compare for exampleBehistun inscription).[114][115] To describe his own Edicts, Ashoka used the wordLipī (𑀮𑀺𑀧𑀺), now generally simply translated as "writing" or "inscription". It is thought the word "lipi", which is also orthographed "dipi" (𐨡𐨁𐨤𐨁) in the twoKharosthi versions of the rock edicts,[note 3] comes from anOld Persian prototypedipî (𐎮𐎡𐎱𐎡) also meaning "inscription", which is used for example byDarius I in hisBehistun inscription,[note 4] suggesting borrowing and diffusion.[116][117][118] There are other borrowings ofOld Persian terms for writing-related words in the Edicts of Ahoka, such asnipista ornipesita (𐨣𐨁𐨤𐨁𐨯𐨿𐨟, "written" and "made to be written") in theKharoshthi version ofMajor Rock Edict No.4, which can be related to the wordnipištā (𐎴𐎡𐎱𐎡𐏁𐎫𐎠, "written") from thedaiva inscription ofXerxes I atPersepolis.[119]
It has also been suggested that inscriptions bearing theDelphic maxims from theSeven Sages of Greece, inscribed by philosopherClearchus of Soli in the neighbouring city ofAi-Khanoum circa 300 BCE, may have influenced the writings of Ashoka.[120][121] These Greek inscriptions, located in the central square of Ai-Khanoum, put forward traditional Greek moral rules which are very close to the Edicts, both in term of formulation and content.[121][122]
The first examples of theHindu–Arabic numeral system appeared in theBrahmi numerals used in the Edicts of Ashoka, in which a few numerals are found, although the system is not yet positional (thezero, together with a mature positional system, was invented much later around the 6th century CE) and involves different symbols for units, dozens or hundreds.[123] This system is later further documented with more numerals in theNanaghat inscriptions (1st century BCE), and later in theNasik Caves inscriptions (2nd century CE), to acquire designs which are largely similar to theHindu–Arabic numerals used today.[124][125][126]
The number "6" in particular appears inMinor Rock Edict No.1 when Ashoka explains he has "been on tour for 256 days". The evolution to the modern glyph for 6 appears rather straightforward. It was written in one stroke, somewhat like a cursive lowercase "e". Gradually, the upper part of the stroke (above the central squiggle) became more curved, while the lower part of the stroke (below the central squiggle) became straighter. The Arabs dropped the part of the stroke below the squiggle. From there, the European evolution to the modern 6 was very straightforward, aside from a flirtation with a glyph that looked more like an uppercase G.[127]
Ashokan inscriptions inPrakrit precede by several centuries inscriptions inSanskrit, probably owing to the great prestige which Ashokan inscriptions gave to the Prakrit language.[129] Louis Renou called it "the great linguisticalparadox of India" that the Sanskrit inscriptions appear later thanPrakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.[129]
Ashoka was probably the first Indian ruler to create stone inscriptions, and in doing so, he began an important Indian tradition of royal epigraphical inscriptions.[128] The earliest known stone inscriptions in Sanskrit are in the Brahmi script from the first century BCE.[129] These early Sanskrit inscriptions include theAyodhyā (Uttar Pradesh) andHāthībādā-Ghosuṇḍī (nearChittorgarh,Rajasthan) inscriptions.[129][130] Other important inscriptions dated to the 1st century BCE, in relatively accurate classical Sanskrit and Brahmi script are theYavanarajya inscription on a red sandstone slab and the longNaneghat inscription on the wall of a cave rest stop in theWestern Ghats.[131] Besides these few examples from the 1st century BCE, the bulk of early Sanskrit inscriptions were made from the 1st and 2nd-century CE by theIndo-ScythianNorthern Satraps inMathura (Uttar Pradesh), and theWestern Satraps inGujarat andMaharashtra.[132] According to Salomon, the Scythian rulers of northern and western India while not the originators, were promoters of the use of Sanskrit language for inscriptions, and "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".[133]
TheBrahmi script used in the Edicts of Ashoka, as well as thePrakrit language of these inscriptions was in popular use down through theKushan period, and remained readable down to the 4th century CE during theGupta period. After that time the script underwent significant evolutions which rendered the Ashokan inscriptions unreadable. This still means that Ashoka's Edicts were for everyone to see and understand for a period of nearly 700 years in India, suggesting that they remained significantly influential for a long time.[134]
The Chinese travellerFa Hian in his writings refers to one of Ashoka's edicts in Ni-li city. However, the specific edict mentioned by Fa-Hien has not yet been discovered.
On the surface of this pillar is an inscription to the following effect:
“King Asoka presented the whole of Jambudvipa to the priests of the four quarters, and redeemed it again with money, and tins he did three times.”
Three or four hundred paces to the north of the pagoda is the spot where Asoka was horn (or resided). On this spot he raised the city of Ni-li, and in the midst of it erected a stone pillar, also about 35 feet in height, on the top of which he placed the figure of a lion, and also engraved an historical record on the pillar giving an account of the successive events connected with Ni-li, with the corresponding year, day, and month.
— Chapter XXVII, The travels ofFa Hian (400 A.D.)[135]
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:Major Rock Edicts:Major Pillar Edicts
:Minor Rock Edicts:Minor Pillar EdictsAccording toChristopher I. Beckwith — whose theories are not accepted by mainstream scholarship — Ashoka, whose name only appears in theMinor Rock Edicts, should be differentiated from the KingPiyadasi, orDevanampiya Piyadasi (i.e. "Beloved of the Gods Piyadasi", "Beloved of the Gods" being a fairly widespread title for "King"), who is named as the author of theMajor Pillar Edicts and theMajor Rock Edicts.[136] Beckwith also highlights the fact that neither Buddhism nor the Buddha are mentioned in the Major Edicts, but only in the Minor Edicts.[137] Further, the Buddhist notions described in the Minor Edicts (such as the Buddhistcanonical writings in Minor Edict No.3 atBairat Temple, the mention of a Buddha of the pastKanakamuni Buddha in theNigali Sagar Minor Pillar Edict) are more characteristic of the "Normative Buddhism" of theSaka-Kushan period around the 2nd century CE.[137]
Beckwith proposed that possiblyPiyadasi and Ashoka were two different rulers.[136] According to Beckwith, Piyadasi was living in the 3rd century BCE, probably the son ofChandragupta Maurya known to the Greeks asAmitrochates, and only advocating for piety ("Dharma") in hisMajor Pillar Edicts andMajor Rock Edicts, without ever mentioningBuddhism, theBuddha or theSamgha.[136] Since he does mention a pilgrimage toSambhodi (Bodh Gaya, inMajor Rock Edict No.8) however, he may have adhered to an "early, pietistic, popular" form of Buddhism.[138] Also, the geographical spread of his inscription shows that Piyadasi ruled a vast Empire, contiguous with theSeleucid Empire in the West.[136]
On the contrary, for Beckwith, Ashoka himself was a later king of the 1st-2nd century CE, whose name only appears explicitly in theMinor Rock Edicts and allusively in theMinor Pillar Edicts, and who does mention the Buddha and theSamgha, explicitly promoting Buddhism.[136] He may have been an unknown or possibly invented ruler named Devanampriya Asoka, with the intent of propagating a later, more institutional version of the Buddhist faith.[137][139] His inscriptions cover a very different and much smaller geographical area, clustering in Central India.[136] According to Beckwith, the inscriptions of this later Ashoka were typical of the later forms of "normative Buddhism", which are well attested from inscriptions and Gandhari manuscripts dated to the turn of the millennium, and around the time of theKushan Empire.[136] The quality of the inscriptions of this Ashoka is significantly lower than the quality of the inscriptions of the earlier Piyadasi.[136]
However, many of Beckwith's methodologies and interpretations concerning early Buddhism, inscriptions, and archaeological sites have been criticized by other scholars, such asJohannes Bronkhorst andOsmund Bopearachchi.[140][141] According toPatrick Olivelle, Beckwith's theory is "an outlier and no mainstream Ashokan scholar would subscribe to that view."[142]
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