Eastern Armenia Արևելյան Հայաստան Arevelyan Hayastan | |
|---|---|
| 387–1991 | |
| Capital | Various (Artashat, Dvin, Yerevan) |
| Other languages | Classical Armenian,Eastern Armenian |
| Religion | Armenian Apostolic Church |
| Historical era | Antiquity – Modern Era |
• First partition of Armenia | 387 |
• Independence of Armenia | 1991 |
| Today part of |  Armenia Azerbaijan (Armenian population left) |
Eastern Armenia (Armenian: Արևելյան Հայաստան,Arevelyan Hayastan) is the eastern portion of theArmenian Highlands, historically inhabited by theArmenian people. Throughout history, Eastern Armenia has been contested and ruled by various foreign powers, including theSasanian,Arab Caliphates,Safavid andQajar Persia, theRussian Empire, and theSoviet Union. Today, it forms the core of the independentRepublic of Armenia[1] and comprises about 10% of theArmenian homeland today.[2][3]
The term gained more precise meaning after the 17th century, particularly following theTreaty of Zuhab (1639), which formalized the division of Armenian territories between theOttoman Empire (Western Armenia) andPersia (Eastern Armenia). This distinction was reinforced in the 19th century with the Russian Empire’s annexation of Persian-controlled Eastern Armenian lands.[4]
Armenia was divided four major times during the medieval and early modern periods:
Sasanian Armenia (a vassal state of thePersian Empire from 387, fully annexed in 428) came under Sasanian control after thePartition of Armenia between theByzantine andSasanian Empires. The division in 387 AD marked the beginning of Persian influence over Eastern Armenia, while the western half remained under Byzantine rule. Initially, the region was ruled by an ArmenianArsacid king under Persian suzerainty, but the Sasanian Empire abolished the Armenian monarchy in 428 and established direct rule through amarzpanate, governed by Persian-appointedmarzpans (governors).[1]
Under Sasanian rule,Persia attempted to integrate Armenia into its imperial system by promotingZoroastrianism, which led to resistance from Armenian nobles and clergy. One of the most defining moments of this struggle was theBattle of Avarayr (451 AD), where Armenian forces, led byVardan Mamikonian, fought against the Persian army to defend theirChristian faith. Though the battle resulted in an Armenian defeat, Persia later recognized Armenia’s right to practiceChristianity, securing its religious autonomy despite continued Sasanian control.[5]
Following the fall of the Sasanian Empire in the mid-7th century,Eastern Armenia came under the control of the Arab Caliphate. The region was incorporated into theUmayyad and later theAbbasid Caliphates as part of the Emirate of Armenia. While Arabs imposed Islamic governance, Armenian nobles retained some autonomy through the nakharar system. Periodic rebellions occurred due to heavy taxation and religious pressures, but the Armenian Church remained active, and literary activity continued in monasteries.[1][5]
Iranian Armenia (1502–1813/1828) refers to the period when Eastern Armenia was under Persian rule, specifically theSafavid Empire (1502–1736), theAfsharid Dynasty (1736–1796), and theQajar Dynasty (1796–1828). The Third Partition of Armenia occurred in 1555, when theSafavid Empire and theOttoman Empire officially divided Armenian territories under theTreaty of Amasya. As a result,Western Armenia, includingLesser Armenia and the western provinces ofGreater Armenia—Aghdznik,Tsopk,Upper Armenia,Turuberan, andTayk—fell under Ottoman rule, while Eastern Armenia remained under Persian control. This division established a geopolitical boundary that persisted for centuries, with Eastern Armenia forming the core of historical Armenia within theArmenian Highlands, covering nearly 50% of the formerKingdom of Greater Armenia.[4]
Throughout this time, Eastern Armenia was a battleground between Persia and the Ottoman Empire, suffering repeated invasions, forced displacements, and economic instability. One of the most devastating events was in 1604, whenShah Abbas I ordered the forced deportation of over 250,000Armenians from their homeland to Persia, relocating them toNew Julfa inIsfahan. While this severely depopulated Eastern Armenia, it strengthened Armenian trade networks within Persia, making Armenians key players in the Persian economy.[6]
TheTreaty of Zuhab (1639) formally divided Armenia between the Persian and Ottoman Empires, establishing a long-lasting border. Eastern Armenia remained under Persian control and was divided into two major administrative regions: Chukhur-i Sa‘ad, which includedErevan andNakhichevan, andKarabakh, governed by Persian-appointed khans. However, inKarabakh, Armenianmeliks (princes) retained some degree of local autonomy and maintained their Christian identity despite Muslim rule. By the 18th century, Persian control had weakened, and Armenian leaders inKarabakh andSyunik actively sought Russian assistance to escape Persian and Ottoman domination.[7]
TheRusso-Persian Wars (1804–1813, 1826–1828) led to the gradual transfer of Eastern Armenian lands from Iran to Russia.[8] Russian control over Armenia persisted until 1917. Under theTreaty of Gulistan (1813), Russia gained control overKarabakh,Ganja, and other regions, marking the first major loss of Persian Armenia. The final blow came with theTreaty of Turkmenchai (1828), which ended Persian rule over Eastern Armenia, fully incorporating the region into the Russian Empire and reshaping its political and demographic landscape.[6] Eastern Armenia came under the control of theRussian Empire in four phases between 1801 and 1878. However, the southern parts of Eastern Armenia remained under Persian (Iranian) rule, a division that continues to this day.
 | |
| Time Period | 1801–1917 |
| Empire | Russian Empire |
| Key Treaties | Treaty of Gulistan,Treaty of Turkmenchay |
| Regions Annexed | Karabakh,Syunik,Lori,Nakhichevan,Yerevan |
On January 18, 1801, theKingdom of Eastern Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) was annexed by the Russian Empire, forming the Georgian Governorate. As a result, several Armenian territories that had previously been under Georgian rule also became part of Russia, includingLori,Utik, and parts ofShirak.[5]
The Treaty of Gulistan (1813) ended the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813) and transferred additional parts of Eastern Armenia to Russia. The key Armenian regions ceded to the Russian Empire included:[4]Artsakh (Karabakh), Syunik (Zangezur), Utik, Paitakaran
TheTreaty of Turkmenchai (1828), which concluded theRusso-Persian War (1826–1828), resulted in further territorial gains for the Russian Empire. The following regions of Eastern Armenia were officially incorporated into Russia:[6]Ararat Plain,Sevan,Kotayk, Nig,Pambak,Vayk,Sharur,Goghtn,Nakhichevan
This treaty also permitted the repatriation of over 40,000 Armenians from Persia back to Eastern Armenia, contributing to demographic shifts in the region.
After the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Russia expanded further into Armenian territories previously under Ottoman rule. The Congress of Berlin granted Russia control over key Armenian regions:[9]Kars Province, Batumi District
These territories historically included parts ofGreater Armenia, such as:Vanand, Western Shirak. Yeraskhadzor-Arsharunik, Abegyanq-Gabegyanq, Havununik, Eastern Basen, Kogh,Javakhk, Parts ofTayk (Oltu-Ughtiq region), Western Gugark (includingArtahan andArdvin),
Following these annexations, Russian Armenia encompassed eight of the fifteen historic provinces of Greater Armenia:Ayrarat (almost entirely),Gugark,Syunik,Artsakh,Utik,Paitakaran, Parsahayk-Norshirakan, EasternVaspurakan.
In 1918, some of these territories became part of the First Republic of Armenia. However, after the fall of the First Republic in 1920, much of Eastern Armenia was absorbed into Soviet Armenia, while southern Eastern Armenia remained under Persian/Iranian control, where it remains today.[5]
 | |
| Delegates | Aharonian, Nubar |
| Goal | Armenian unification |
| Outcome | No territorial gains |
.PNG) | |
| Proposal | Wilsonian Armenia |
| Status | Never ratified |
| Replaced by | Treaty of Lausanne |
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Armenian leaders and intellectuals sought to unify Eastern andWestern Armenia.[citation needed] These efforts intensified after the Russian annexation of Eastern Armenia, as many Armenians hoped that Russia would eventually liberate Western Armenia from Ottoman rule. Appeals were made to theRussian Empire, particularly during the Russo-Turkish Wars, and Armenian volunteer fighters from Eastern Armenia joined the Russian army with the aim of national reunification.[9]
During theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Armenian hopes were temporarily raised as Russian forces occupied large portions of Western Armenia. The resulting Treaty of San Stefano initially promised reforms and protection for Armenians in Ottoman lands, but these provisions were later weakened at the Congress of Berlin. Despite this setback, the Armenian national movement continued advocating for unification and autonomy, with cultural societies, political organizations, and church leaders promoting a pan-Armenian identity.
World War I reignited these aspirations. The Russian army, supported by Armenian volunteer units, advanced into Western Armenia and briefly established control over key territories, includingVan,Erzurum, andBitlis. However, the Russian Revolution of 1917 and subsequent withdrawal of Russian forces dashed these hopes. The territories were retaken by the Ottomans, and unification was never achieved. Nevertheless, the dream of a unitedArmenia remained a core ideal in Armenian national consciousness throughout the 20th century.[10][5]
With the collapse of theSoviet Union in 1991, Eastern Armenia emerged as the Republic of Armenia. The early post-Soviet years were marked by economic hardship, regional conflict withAzerbaijan overNagorno-Karabakh, and political instability. Despite these challenges, Eastern Armenia continued to develop its institutions, and the Eastern Armenian dialect remains the language register used in the country.[9]
Post-independence Armenia transitioned from a centrally planned Soviet economy to a market-based system. This period saw major privatization, inflation, and emigration, but also the emergence of civil society and democratic movements. The 1994 ceasefire with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh did not end tensions, and Armenia remained diplomatically and militarily aligned with Russia while also deepening ties with theEuropean Union. Theconflict ended with anagreement in 2025 afterAzerbaijani regained control in 2023.
Culturally, Eastern Armenia retained many Russian influences in law, education, and public administration, but also experienced a revival of traditional Armenian identity, arts, and religion.[citation needed] TheArmenian Apostolic Church regained a prominent public role, and Yerevan saw the growth of new cultural institutions and diaspora connections. The legacy of Persian and Russian rule continues to shape the country’s geopolitical orientation, with ongoing efforts to balance regional alliances and maintain national sovereignty.[11][1]