In the study ofcomparative religion, theEast Asian religions, form a subset of theEastern religions which originated inEast Asia.
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This group includes Chinese religion overall, which further includesancestor veneration,Chinese folk religion,Confucianism,Taoism andpopular salvationist organisations (such asYiguandao andWeixinism), as well as elements drawn fromMahayana Buddhism that form the core ofChinese andEast Asian Buddhism at large.[1] The group also includesShinto andTenrikyo of Japan, andKorean Shamanism, all of which combineshamanistic elements and indigenousancestral worship with various influences from Chinese religions.[2]Chinese salvationist religions have influenced the rise ofJapanese new religions suchTenriism and KoreanJeungsanism; as these new religious movements draw upon indigenous traditions but are heavily influenced byChinese philosophy andtheology.[3] All these religious traditions generally share core concepts of spirituality, divinity and world order, includingTao ('way') andTian ('heaven').[4]
Early Chinese philosophies defined the Tao and advocated cultivating thede 'virtue', which arises from the knowledge of such Tao.[5] Some ancient Chinese philosophical schools merged into traditions with different names or became extinct, such asMohism and others belonging to the ancientHundred Schools of Thought, which were largely subsumed into Taoism. East Asian religions include many theological stances, includingpolytheism,nontheism,henotheism,monotheism,pantheism,panentheism andagnosticism.[6]
The place of East Asian religions amongmajor religious groups is comparable to theAbrahamic religions found across the classical world, andIndian religions across theIndian subcontinent,Tibetan Plateau andSoutheast Asia.[7]
Despite a wide variety of terms, the traditions described as "Far Eastern religions", "East Asian religions" or "Chinese religions" are recognized by scholars as a distinct religious family.[8][9]
Syncretism is a common feature of East Asian religions, often making it difficult to recognise individual faiths.[10][11] Further complications arise from the inconsistent use of many terms. "Tao religion" is often used for Taoism itself,[12] as well as being used for many Tao-based new religious movements.[13]
"Far Eastern religion" or "Taoic religion" may refer only to faiths incorporating the concept of Tao, may includeChan andJapanese Buddhism, or may inclusively refer to all Asian religions.[14][15][16]
The Tao may be roughly defined as the flow of reality, of the universe, or the force behind the natural order.[17] Believed to be the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered, the Tao is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao.[18] It is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence.[19]
The Tao is often associated with a "virtue" of being, thede orte. This is considered the active expression of Tao.[20] Generally, those religions closer to Taoism explainde as "integrity" or "wholeness", while those faiths closer to Confucianism express this concept as "morality" or "sound character".[21]
The concepts of Tao andde are shared by both Taoism and Confucianism.[22] The authorship of theTao Te Ching, the central book of Taoism, is assigned toLaozi, who is traditionally held to have been a teacher of Confucius.[23] However, some scholars believe that the Tao Te Ching arose as a reaction to Confucianism.[24]Zhuangzi, reacting to the Confucian-Mohist ethical disputes casts Laozi as a prior step to the Mohists by name and the Confucians by implication. However, secular scholars usually consider Laozi and Zhuangzi to have beenmythological figures.[25][26]
Early Taoist texts reject Confucian emphasis on rituals and order, in favour of an emphasis on "wild" nature and individualism. Historical Taoists challenged conventional morality, while Confucians considered society debased and in need of strong ethical guidance.[27]
Taoism consists of a wide variety of religious, philosophical and ritual orders.[28] There arehermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorisation of Taoist schools, sects and movements.[29]
Taoism does not fall strictly under an umbrella or a definition of anorganised religion like theAbrahamic traditions, nor can it purely be studied as a variant ofChinese folk religion, as much of the traditional religion is outside of the tenets and core teachings of Taoism. Robinet asserts that Taoism is better understood as a way of life than as a religion, and that its adherents do not approach or view Taoism the way non-Taoist historians have done.[30]
In general, Taoist propriety and ethics place an emphasis on the unity of the universe, the unity of the material world and the spiritual world, the unity of the past, present and future, as well as on theThree Jewels of the Tao (love, moderation, humility).[31] Taoist theology focuses on doctrines ofwu wei ("non-action"), spontaneity, relativity and emptiness.[32][33]
Traditional Chinese Taoist schools accept polytheism, but there are differences in the composition of their pantheon.[34] On the popular level, Taoism typically presents theJade Emperor as the headdeity. Professionalised Taoism (i.e. priestly orders) usually presents Laozi and theThree Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon.[35]
Worship of nature deities and ancestors is common in popular Taoism, while professional Taoists put an emphasis oninternal alchemy. The Tao is never an object of worship, being treated more like the Indian concept ofatman.[36]
Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought, influential in the history of East Asia.[37] It is commonly associated withlegalism, but actually rejects legalism forritualism.[38] It also endorsesmeritocracy as the ideal ofnobility.[39] Confucianism includes a complicated system governing duties and etiquette in relationships. Confucian ethics focus on familial duty, loyalty and humaneness.[40]
Confucianism recognises the existence of ancestral spirits and deities, advocating paying them proper respect.[41] Confucian thought is notable as the framework upon which the syncreticNeo-Confucianism was built.[42]
Neo-Confucianism was developed in reaction to Taoism and Chan Buddhism. It was formulated during theSong dynasty, but its roots may be traced to scholars of theTang dynasty. It draw Buddhist religious concepts and Taoistyin yang theory, as well as theYijing, and placed them within the framework of classic Confucianism.[43]
Despite Neo-Confucianism's incorporation of elements of Buddhism and Taoism, its apologists still decried both faiths.[44] Neo-Confucianism was an officially endorsed faith for over five centuries, deeply influencing all of East Asia.[45]
New Confucianism is amodernist Confucianism, which accommodates modern science and democratic ideals, while remaining conservative in preserving traditional Neo-Confucianist positions. The influence of New Confucianism prompted sinceDeng Xiaoping became the leader of China in 1978 and helped cultural exchanges between China and Taiwan.[46]
Shinto is theethnic religion of Japan.[47] Shinto literally means "Way of the gods". Shinto practitioners commonly affirm tradition, family, nature, cleanliness and ritual observation as core values.[48]
Taoist influence is significant in their beliefs about nature and self-mastery.Ritual cleanliness is a central part of Shinto life.[49]Shrines have a significant place in Shinto, being places for the veneration of thekami (gods or spirits).[50] "Folk", or "popular", Shinto features an emphasis on shamanism, particularlydivination,spirit possession andfaith healing. "Sect" Shinto is a diverse group including mountain-worshippers andConfucian Shinto schools.[51]
The entry ofBuddhism into China from theIndian subcontinent was marked by interaction andsyncretism with Taoism in particular.[52] Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.[53]Chan Buddhism was particularly modelled after Taoism, integrating distrust of scripture, text and even language, as well as the Taoist views of embracing "this life", dedicated practice and the "every-moment".[54] In theTang period Taoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture into tripartite organisation. During the same time, Chan Buddhism grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism.[55]
The Buddha's "Dharma" seemed alien and amoral to conservative and Confucian sensibilities.[56] Confucianism promoted social stability, order, strong families, and practical living, and Chinese officials questioned how monastic lifestyle and personal attainment of enlightenment benefited the empire.[53] However, Buddhism and Confucianism eventually reconciled after centuries of conflict and assimilation.[57]
Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another.[58] They did share some similar values. All three embraced ahumanist philosophy emphasising moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.[59] This became institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school.[57]
Kitagawa, Joseph (2002),The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture, Taylor & Francis,ISBN 978-0-700-71762-0
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