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TheSinosphere,[1] also known as theChinese cultural sphere,[2]East Asian cultural sphere,[3] or theSinic world,[4] encompasses multiple countries inEast Asia andSoutheast Asia that were historically heavily influenced byChinese culture.[4][5] The Sinosphere comprisesGreater China,Japan,Korea,Vietnam and historically theRyukyuans.[6] Other definitions may include the regions of modern-dayMongolia[7][8][9] andSingapore, due either to historical Chinese influence or a contemporaryoverseas Chinese population.[10] The Sinosphere is different from theSinophone world, which indicates regions where theChinese language is spoken.[11]
Imperial China was a major regional power in Eastern Asia and exerted influence ontributary states and neighboring states, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.[a] These interactions brought ideological and cultural influences rooted inConfucianism,Buddhism, andTaoism. The four cultures were ruled by their respective emperors under similar imperial systems, furthermore, the adoption of the Confucian-based imperial examination system deeply influenced the bureaucracy and social structure of Korea and Vietnam.Chinese inventions influenced, and were in turn influenced by, innovations of the other cultures in governance, philosophy, science, and the arts.[14][15][16]Literary Chinese became the writtenlingua franca for bureaucracy and communications,[17] andChinese characters became locally adapted askanji in Japan,hanja in Korea, andchữ Hán in Vietnam.[18][19]
In late classical history, the literary importance of classical Chinese diminished as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam each adopted their own writing systems. Japan developed thekatakana andhiragana scripts, Korea createdhangul, and Vietnam developedchữ Nôm (now rarely used in lieu of the modern Latin-basedVietnamese alphabet).[20][21] Classical literature written in Chinese characters nonetheless remains an important legacy of Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese cultures.[22] In the 21st century, ideological and cultural influences of Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism remain visible inhigh culture and social doctrines.
Ancient China was one of thecradles of civilization, with the emergent cultures that arose from the migration ofHan settlers from theYellow River generally regarded as the origin of the East Asian world.[23]
Japanese historianNishijima Sadao [ja] (1919–1998), professor emeritus at theUniversity of Tokyo, coined the termTōa bunka-ken (東亜文化圏, 'East Asian Cultural Sphere') to refer to an East Asian cultural sphere distinct from the cultures of the West. According to Nishijima, this cultural sphere—which includes China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam—shared the philosophy ofConfucianism, the religion ofBuddhism, and similar political and social structures stemming from a background of historicalClassical Chinese scholars.[5] It has also been informally referred to as the "chopsticks sphere" due to perceived native use of these utensils across the region.[24][25]
The termSinosphere is derived fromSino- 'China' (cf.Sinophone) +-sphere, in the sense of thesphere of influence under the influence of a country.[26]
TheCJK languages—Chinese, Japanese, Korean—each use cognate terms to translate Englishsphere:
Unlike with the other languages of the Sinosphere, the corresponding Vietnamese cognatekhuyên圈 is not used to mean 'sphere' or 'area'.[b] Instead,vùng ('region', 'area') is used. The Chinese東亞文化圈 is translated in Vietnamese asVùng văn hóa Á Đông (塳文化亞東).
In theRyukyuan languages,圏 (ちん;chin) is not used to mean 'sphere', 'area', or 'domain' and only appears inkammun texts written by Ryukyuans. Instead,世 (yu) is used to mean 'world' or 'sphere'. As such,漢字文化圏 and東亜文化圏 would be translated askanjii tiigata nu yu (漢字一型ぬ世) andtoo-a tiigata nu yu (東亜一型ぬ世), respectively.
Victor H. Mair discussed the origins of these 'culture sphere' terms.[27]The Chinesewénhuà quān (文化圈) dates to a 1941 translation for the German termKulturkreis, ('culture circle, field'), which the Austrian ethnologistsFritz Graebner andWilhelm Schmidt proposed. Japanese historianNishijima Sadao [ja] coined the expressionsKanji bunka ken (漢字文化圏; 'Chinese-character culture sphere') andChuka bunka ken (中華文化圏; 'Chinese culture sphere'), which China later re-borrowed asloanwords.The Sinosphere may be taken to be synonymous toAncient China and its descendant civilizations as well as the "Far Eastern civilizations" (the Mainland and the Japanese ones). In Toynbee'sA Study of History (1934–1961), the Sinosphere is presented as among the major "units of study", along with theWestern, Islamic, Eastern Orthodox, and Indic civilizations.[28]
British historianArnold J. Toynbee lists the Far Eastern civilization as one of the main civilizations outlined in his bookA Study of History. He proposes that the initial "Sinic civilization" originating in the Yellow River basin gradually grew into the subsequent "Far Eastern civilization", which extended to the Yangzi region and into Korea and Japan.[29] Commonalities within the Far Eastern civilization were the result of developing from a "Sinic universal state".[30] Toynbee contrasts this "affiliation" relationship between the Sinic and Far Eastern civilizations with the "apparentation-affiliation" relationship between the Hellenic and Western civilizations.[30]
Americansinologist and historianEdwin O. Reischauer also groups China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam into a cultural sphere that he calls the "Sinic world", a group of centralized states that share a Confucian ethical philosophy. Reischauer states that this culture originated in northern China, and compares the relationship between northern China and East Asia to that ofGreco-Roman civilization and Europe. The elites of East Asia were tied together through a common written language based on Chinese characters, much in the way that Latin functioned in Europe.[4]
In his bookThe Clash of Civilizations, American political scientistSamuel P. Huntington considers the Sinic world as one of the modern (post–Cold War) civilizations. He notes that "all scholars recognize the existence of either a single distinct Chinese civilization dating back to at least 1500 B.C. and perhaps a thousand years earlier, or of two Chinese civilizations, one succeeding the other, in the early centuries of the Christian epoch".[31] Huntington's Sinic civilization includes China, North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam, and Chinese communities in Southeast Asia.[32] Of the many civilizations that Huntington discusses, the Sinic world is the only one that is based on a cultural, rather than religious, identity.[33] Huntington theorizes that in a post–Cold War world, humanity "[identifies] with cultural groups: tribes, ethnic groups, religious communities [and] at the broadest level, civilizations".[34][35] One exception is Japan, which Huntington considers as a distinct civilization.[36]
Cultural commonalities among the Sinosphere countries reflect their shared source of influence from Imperial China.
The cuisine of East Asia shares many of the same ingredients and techniques.Chopsticks are used as an eating utensil in all of the core East Asian countries.[39] The use of soy sauce, which is made from fermenting soybeans, is also widespread in the region.[40]
Rice is the staple food in all of East Asia and is a major focus offood security.[41] People who have no rice are often seen as having no food. Moreover, in East Asian countries such as Japan (御飯;gohan), Korea (밥;bap), and Vietnam (cơm; 𩚵 or 粓), the word for "cooked rice" can embody the meaning of food in general.[39]
Popular terms associated with East Asian cuisine includeboba,kimchi,sushi,hot pot, tea,dim sum,ramen, as well asphở,sashimi,udon, andchả giò.[42]
East Asian literary culture is based on the use ofLiterary Chinese, which became the medium of scholarship, administration, and government across the region. Although Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed vernacular writing systems for their languages, these were limited to popular literature.[44] Literary Chinese remained the medium of formal writing until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when it was swept away by rising nationalism and displaced by vernacular writing.[45]
Though they did not use Chinese for spoken communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-calledSino-Xenic pronunciations, which provide clues to the pronunciation ofMiddle Chinese. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also borrowed extensively by local vernaculars and today comprise over half their vocabularies.[46]Vernacular or standard Chinese encompassingvarieties of Chinese also developed alongside the use of Literary Chinese.
Books in Literary Chinese were widely distributed. By the 7th century and possibly earlier,woodblock printing had been developed in China. At first, it was used only to copy Buddhist scriptures, but later secular works were also printed. By the 13th century, metalmovable type was used by government printers in Korea but seems to have not been extensively used in China, Vietnam, or Japan. At the same time, manuscript reproduction remained important until the late 19th century.[47]
Japan'stextual scholarship had Chinese origins, which made Japan one of the birthplaces of modernsinology.[48]
TheFour Books and Five Classics are the authoritative books ofConfucianism, which were used to study for civil service examinations inChina,Korea, andVietnam.
The Art of War,Tao Te Ching,I Ching, andAnalects are classic Chinese texts that have been influential in East Asian history.[49] More generally, the philosophies and practices of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism have had long-standing and deep-rooted influence in Sinosphere countries.
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Taoism has influenced countries throughout the Sinosphere. The Taoist school of thought emerged in China from the teachings ofLao Tse. It follows the search for thetao, a concept that is equivalent to a 'path' or 'course' and represents the cosmic force that creates the universe and all things. According to this belief, the wisdom of thetao is the only source of the universe and represents a natural path of life events. Thus, the adherents of Taoism follow the search fortao, which represents the strength of the universe.
The most important text in Taoism, theTao Te Ching ("Book of the Way and Virtue", c. 300 BC), declares that thetao is the "source" of the universe, thus considered a creative principle, but not as a deity. Nature manifests itself spontaneously, without a higher intention, and it is up to humans to integrate, through "non-action" (wu wei) and spontaneity (zi ran), to its flow and rhythms, in order to achieve happiness and a long life.
Taoism is a combination of teachings from various sources; it manifests as a system that can be philosophical, religious, or ethical. The tradition can also be presented as a worldview and a way of life.[50]
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Buddhist philosophy is guided by the teachings of the Buddha, which lead the individual toenlightenment through meditative practices, mindfulness, and reflection on their daily actions. The belief is that physical and spiritual awareness leads to a state of enlightenment callednirvana, which, according to Buddha, is the highest state of meditation. In this state the individual finds peace and tranquility above the oscillations of thoughts and emotions and is rid of the inherent suffering of the physical world.[51]
Buddhism in the Sinosphere is or derives fromMahayana Buddhism, a sect which is seen to be intertwined withinTaoism andConfucianism.[52] It advocates for altruism and compassion, as well as understanding and escaping fromsuffering in relation tokarma.[53]Vegetarianism orveganism is followed by moremonastic or devout Buddhists of this sect, and even among lay Buddhists, as it leads to compassion for all living, sentient beings.[54][55][56]
The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam share a Confucian philosophical worldview.[4] Confucianism is ahumanistic[57] philosophy that believes that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are:[58]
Mid-Imperial Chinese philosophy is primarily defined by the development ofneo-Confucianism, which has its origins in theTang dynasty. The Confucianist scholarHan Yu is seen as a forebear of the neo-Confucianists of theSong dynasty.[59] The Song dynasty philosopherZhou Dunyi is seen as the first true "pioneer" of neo-Confucianism, using Taoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.[60]
Elsewhere in East Asia,Japanese philosophy began to develop as indigenousShinto beliefs fused with Buddhism, Confucianism, and other schools ofChinese philosophy. Similarly, inKorean philosophy, elements ofshamanism were integrated into theneo-Confucianism imported from China. In Vietnam, neo-Confucianism, along with Taoism and Buddhism, were also developed into Vietnam's ownTam giáo, which together withVietnamese folk religion shapedVietnamese philosophy.
Though not commonly identified with East Asia, the following religions have been influential in its history.
Christianity is the most popular religion inSouth Korea, followed by Buddhism.[61] Significant Christian communities are also found inmainland China,Hong Kong,Macau,Taiwan,Singapore,Japan, andVietnam.[62] In recent years, variousdenominations of Christianity, mainlyProtestantism andCatholicism, have gained popularity in these areas, due to its own version of spirituality andcharitability.[63][64] However, it is unlikely to supersede the more natively rooted Buddhism, except in places likeSouth Korea where Protestantism is more popular.[61] In Vietnam,Roman Catholicism is prominent, and early Christian missionaries played a historical role in romanizing the Vietnamese language prior toFrench colonial rule.[65]
Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE.[69] It is the most popular religion inXinjiang and has significant communities inNingxia.
ForHinduism; seeHinduism in Vietnam,Hinduism in China.
No specific religious affiliation may also be practiced, and is often the most cited in several aforementioned countries.[citation needed] However, regardless of religious affiliations, most people in the Sinosphere are entwined with traces of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, or native religions and philosophies.
The following language families are found in and around the East Asian cultural sphere. Some have historically contributed to the vocabulary or development of Sinitic languages, while others have been influenced by them to some degree. Only some of these languages are highly indebted toLiterary Chinese and thus relevant to the East Asian cultural sphere.
| Language family | Regions spoken | Major languages | Note | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sino-Tibetan | China, Singapore, Myanmar,Christmas Island, Bhutan,northeast India,Kashmir, parts of Nepal | Varieties of Chinese,Tibetic languages,Burmese | These are thought to have originated around theYellow River, north of theYangtze. | [70][71] |
| Austronesian | Taiwan, Brunei,Timor-Leste, Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia,Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, Madagascar, most of Oceania | Formosan languages,Indonesian,Filipino,Malagasy,Māori | [72][73] | |
| Turkic | China, Russia, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Cyprus, Turkey | Kazakh,Kyrgyz,Uyghur,Uzbek,Azerbaijani,Turkish | [74][75][76] | |
| Austroasiatic | Vietnam, Cambodia | Vietnamese,Khmer | ||
| Kra-Dai | Thailand, Laos, parts of southern China | Zhuang,Thai,Lao | ||
| Mongolic | Mongolia, China, Russia | Oirat,Mongolian,Monguor,Dongxiang,Buryat | ||
| Tungusic | China, Russia | Evenki,Manchu,Xibe | ||
| Koreanic | Korea | Korean,Jeju | ||
| Japonic | Japan | Japanese,Ryukyuan,Hachijo | ||
| Ainu | Japan | Hokkaido Ainu | The only surviving Ainu language is Hokkaido Ainu. |
The core languages of the East Asian cultural sphere are predominantly Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese (CJKV), and their respective variants. These are well-documented to have historically used Chinese characters, with Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese each having roughly 60% of their vocabulary derived from Chinese.[77][78][79] There is a small set of minor languages that are comparable to the core East Asian languages, such asZhuang andHmong-Mien. They are often overlooked, since neither have their own country nor heavily export their culture, but Zhuang has been written inHanzi-inspired characters calledSawndip for over 1,000 years. Hmong, while having supposedly lacked a writing system until modern history, is also suggested to have a similar percentage of Chinese loans to the core CJKV languages.[80]
Due to the common usage of Chinese characters across East Asian nations, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese people traditionally can engage in written communication usingLiterary Chinese without knowing other people's spoken language, a method calledBrushtalk.[81]
As a result, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese are also deemedSino-Xenic languages that are highly influenced by ancient forms of Literary Chinese.[82][83]
| Writing system | Regions used | |
|---|---|---|
| Logograms | Hanzi and its variants | China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam*, Taiwan |
| Dongba symbols | China (used by theNaxi ethnic minorities in China) | |
| Chữ Nôm | Vietnam*, China (Dongxing, Guangxi), still used by theGin people today[citation needed] | |
| Syllabary | Kana | Japan |
| Yi script | China (used by theYi ethnic minorities in China) | |
| Semi-syllabary | Bopomofo | Taiwan, and historically mainland China. Used to aid in the learning of Hanzi, especially reading and writing, in elementary schools. On the mainland it is used only in theXiandai Hanyu Cidian. |
| Alphabet | Latin | Vietnam, China (used by some ethnic minorities in China, such as theMiao people); Taiwan (Tâi-lô Latin script for theTaiwanese Hokkien language) |
| Hangul | Korea, China (used by theChoson ethnic minorities in northeastern China) | |
| Cyrillic | Mongolia (though there is a movement to switch back toMongolian script)[84] | |
| Mongolian | Mongolia*, China (Inner Mongolia) | |
| Abugida | Brahmic scripts of Indian origin | Singapore, China (Tibet,Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture) |
| Pollard script | China (used by theHmong ethnic minorities in China) | |
| Abjad | Uyghur Arabic alphabet | China (Xinjiang) |
| * Official usage historically. Currently used unofficially. | ||
Chinese characters are considered the common culture that unifies the languages and cultures of many East Asian nations. Today, mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore useSimplified Chinese characters, whereas Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau useTraditional Chinese characters.
Historically, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam have also used Chinese characters. Today, they are still used in Japan and South Korea, albeit in different forms.
Japan still useskanji but has also inventedkana, inspired by theChinese cursive script.
Korea used to write inhanja but has invented an alphabetic system calledhangul that is nowadays the majority script. However, hanja is still a required subject in South Korea schools. Most names are also written in hanja. Hanja is also studied and used in academia, newspapers, and law—areas where a lot of scholarly terms andSino-Korean loanwords are used and necessary to distinguish between otherwise ambiguous homonyms.
Vietnam used to write inchữ Hán (Chinese characters) inClassical Chinese texts (Hán văn). In the 8th century, the Vietnamese began inventing many of their ownchữ Nôm characters. Since French colonization, they have switched to using a modified version of the Latin alphabet calledchữ Quốc ngữ. Chinese characters had a long and great influence on Vietnamese history and literature, and thus still hold a special place in Vietnamese culture. In Vietnam (and North Korea), chữ Hán can be seen in temples, cemeteries, and monuments as well as serving as decorative motifs in art and design.
Zhuang people are similar to the Vietnamese in that they used to write in Sawgun (Chinese characters) and have invented many of their own characters, calledSawndip. Sawndip is still used informally and in traditional settings, but the Chinese government officially promotes the use of an alphabetical script, which it introduced in 1957, for the language.[85]
The business cultures of East Asia are heavily influenced by Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. Common factors across the Sinosphere tend to place great emphasis and respect towards traits of humility and conformity.[86][87][88][89]
Japan often features hierarchically organizedcompanies, andJapanese work environments place a high value oninterpersonal relationships.[90] A leader of a Japanese company is typically valued on their ability to maintain social harmony, and to unify or bring together their employees, rather than simply being the top decision maker.[91][92]
Korean businesses, adhering to Confucian values, are structured around apatriarchal family governed byfilial piety (孝順) between management and employees, where knowing one's place within the hierarchy, and showing respect for a person's age and status, are very important in Korean society. It is not uncommon for people in a Korean office to refer to others as their seniors (seonbae) or their juniors (hubae). A person's position within a company usually reflects their age, and juniors tend to listen to their seniors without pause.[93] Koreans value maintaining a social harmonious environment that allows a worker'skibun (mood or emotional feelings) to remain balanced.[81]
Maintaining face is usually how business and social relationships work in East Asia, whereas aggressively patronising others, or criticising them publicly in front of others, tend to be the ways to lose business relationships.[92][94] In Chinese business culture, there is a high value on nurturing relationships using the social concept ofguanxi, which refers to a state of having personal trust and a solid relationship with someone, and can involve exchanging favours and have moral obligations to one another.[95][96]
Vietnamese culture tends to be hierarchical by age and seniority. The Vietnamese prefer to work with those who they trust, extending this to business relations that often are maintained between peers and relatives. Women have an important role in Vietnamese culture (owing to their historical status assoldiers). Interpersonal relationships are also highly valued. Vietnamese businesspeople may take spoken word as fact. Maintaining face is highly important—anger or displaying temper will reduce trust. When there are disruptions in harmony, Vietnamese may use silence as a way of allowing any tension to simmer down.[97][98]
During theIndustrial Revolution, East Asia modernized and became an area of economic power, starting with theMeiji Restoration in the late 19th century, when Japan rapidly transformed itself into the only industrial power outside the North Atlantic area.[99]
Hong Kong's successful post–WWII economy, based on developing strong textile and manufacturing industries, led to the territory's categorization as one of theFour Asian Tigers.[100] South Korea followed a similar route, developing its textile industry.[100] After the post–WWIIUS military occupation of the country, theKorean War, and the ultimate division of the peninsula, South Korea experienced what has become known as theMiracle on the Han River, with the rise ofchaebols like Samsung and LG strongly driving its economy. As of 2023, South Korea had the 12th largest economy in the world by nominal GDP.[101][102]
Japanese economic growth stagnated in the 1990s; yet it currently remains the world's 3rd largest economy by nominal GDP.[as of?] Presently, higher growth in the region has been experienced by China and theTiger Cub Economies of Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam.[103][104][105][106]
The impact of theVietnam War was devastating. Vietnam only started opening its economy throughĐổi Mới reforms in 1986, and theUS lifted its embargo on Vietnam only in 1995. Since then, theVietnamese economy has been developing at a rapid pace.
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Up until the early 2010s, Vietnamese trade was heavily dependent on China. Most Chinese-Vietnamese people are from Cantonese background, and can speak Cantonese and Vietnamese, which share many linguistic similarities.[107] Vietnam, one of theNext Eleven countries as of 2005[update], is regarded as a rising economicpower in Southeast Asia.[108]
Since theChinese economic reform, China's economy has grown rapidly. In 2020, the country had become the 2nd and 1st-largest economy in the world respectively by nominal GDP andGDP (PPP).[109][110]
Although Greater China, Japan, and Korea all have extensive links with the rest ofASEAN, Vietnam is the only Sinosphere country that is formally part of ASEAN as aSoutheast Asian country. Singapore, a highly developed economy, is also a part of ASEAN with a population that is significantlyoverseas Chinese. The economies ofChina andJapan are respectively the world's second- and third-largest economies by nominal GDP, and both are highly influential globally in terms of cultural exportation. South Korea was the 13th largest in 2022 by nominal GDP and has been highly influential as well, with the popularity of theKorean wave since the 1990s. North Korea was the 107th largest, and Vietnam the 35th largest, by nominal GDP in 2023.[citation needed]
Sinosphere countries are involved in various economic groups and initiatives, including:
Mutual relations stem from hundreds to thousands of years of history between each Sinosphere state, originating from trade, cultural flow, conquest, and the spread of Classical Chinese writing. Despite these long historical connections, racism andxenophobia stemming from deep-rooted historical, economic, political, or regional differences has also been a major concern. In addition to mutual relations, various forms of inheritance of Chinese civilisation or "Little China" ideologies have surfaced with Vietnam, Japan, and Korea, (the use of 中國 in self-reference) in various situations, conferring the "Chinese" label.[incomprehensible]
China has had direct relations with its immediate neighbors since at least the first century BC. TheHan dynasty conquered parts of northern Vietnam in 111 BC, and northern Korea in 109 BC (although Chinese influence there had begun earlier). Chinese rule and influence continued to impactVietnam andKorea.[111] China–Vietnam relations are tied to historical confrontations and the transfer of cultural and philosophical thoughts emanating from China to Vietnam. Although the countries are currently similar politically, their relations can also sometimes be fraught and unsound.[112][113][114]
The variousBaiyue peoples (Vietnamese:Bách Việt,lit. 'Hundred Yue's') were vaguely but historically connected to the southern Chinese and Vietnamese. In the past, [粵] (Yue,Viet,Cantonese) was interchangeable with the homophonous character that today refers specifically to the Vietnamese [越] (Yue,Viet,Vietnamese). Cantonese scholars looked through earlier Chinese sources to find historical information about the Việt/Yue, whether recorded with [粵] or [越].[115]
Vietnam and Korea had semi-official encounters when both countries' envoys met in China from the 16th to 19th centuries.[116][117] Despite the geographical distance, the countries share parallels, such as colonial rule and political division.[117] South Korea was involved with South Vietnam in the controversial Vietnam War.[118] Today, Vietnam uniquely maintains good relations both with democratic states (like the US and South Korea) and with its historic communist allies (like China and North Korea).[119] Although courteous, Vietnam's separate relations with North Korea and South Korea are made delicate by the tensions on the Korean peninsula. Vietnam was used as neutral ground for the 2019 North Korean–US summit.[120][119][121]
China has influenced Japan for around two millennia. Historically, Japan emulated many cultural and philosophical thoughts from China, with many Japanese undertaking studies that came from China or via Korea.[122] Culture, trade, and military confrontation has been a major focal point between the two as well, and relations can become very fraught.[123]
Japan's links with Southeast Asia were mainly through maritime trade stemming from the 16th century.[124] Japan's relations with Vietnam via China goes further back, to the 8th century.[125][126] Although some residual grievances about Japan's historical colonization in Asia may remain, as well as existing political differences, the relation has mostly been of mutualism.[127][128] However, instances of mistreatment, such as abuse towards Vietnamese laborers in Japan, has surfaced.[129][130]
Korea and Japan have had extensive links in terms of culture, trade, political contact, and military confrontations. Thehistory of Japan–Korea relations extends for over 15 centuries, with many ideas from mainland Asia flowing into Japan via Korea in historical times.[122] Although geographically close, the two countries are culturally distinct from one another and may harbor contrasting military and historical viewpoints, where relations can turn fraught, especially in the context of Japanese colonization.[131][132][133]
Korea and China relations are extensive and several millennia old. Much cultural and intellectual trade has transferred into Korea from China.[111] The states have also partaken in several military confrontations, with parts of Korea being subsumed by Chinese rule since 109 BC.[111] Much of the history between Korea and China focused on Northeast Asia, and played a role in transmitting knowledge to Japan.[122]Korea has also shared relations withManchuria andNortheast China,[134] which themselves practiced a form ofcultural assimilation with theHan Chinese.[135] Modern relations between China and Korea can become fraught.[136]
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)As the textile industry began to abandon places with high labor costs in the western industrialized world, it began to sprout up in a variety of Third World locations, in particular the famous 'Four Tiger' nations of East Asia: South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Textiles were particularly important in the early industrialization of South Korea, while garment production was more significant to Hong Kong.
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