Early modern Europe, also referred to as thepost-medieval period, is the period ofEuropean history between the end of theMiddle Ages and the beginning of theIndustrial Revolution, roughly the mid 15th century to the late 18th century. Historians variously mark the beginning of theearly modern period with the invention ofmoveable type printing in the 1450s, theFall of Constantinople and end of theHundred Years' War in 1453, the end of theWars of the Roses in 1485, the beginning of theHigh Renaissance in Italy in the 1490s, the end of theReconquista and subsequentvoyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas in 1492, or the start of the ProtestantReformation in 1517. The precise dates of its end point also vary and are usually linked with either the start of theFrench Revolution in 1789 or with the more vaguely defined beginning of theIndustrial Revolution in late 18th century England.
Some of the more notable trends and events of the early modern period included the Reformation and the religious conflicts it provoked (including theFrench Wars of Religion and theThirty Years' War), the rise ofcapitalism and modernnation states, widespreadwitch hunts andEuropean colonization of the Americas.
The modern period was characterized by profound changes in many realms of human endeavor. Among the most important include the development of science as a formalized practice, increasingly rapidtechnological progress, and the establishment of secularized civic politics,law courts and thenation state.Capitalist economies began to develop in a nascent form, first in the northern Italian republics such asGenoa andVenice as well as in the cities of theLow Countries, and later in France, Germany and England. The early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory ofmercantilism. As such, the early modern period is often associated with the decline and eventual disappearance (at least in Western Europe) offeudalism andserfdom. The ProtestantReformation greatly altered the religious balance ofChristendom, creating a formidable new opposition to the dominance of theCatholic Church, especially in Northern Europe. The early modern period also witnessed thecircumnavigation of the Earth and the establishment of regular European contact with the Americas andSouth and East Asia. The ensuing rise of global systems of international economic, cultural and intellectual exchange played an important role in the development ofcapitalism and represents an identifiable early phase ofglobalization.
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Regardless of the precise dates used to define its beginning and end points, the early modern period is generally agreed to have comprised theRenaissance, theReformation, theScientific Revolution, and theEnlightenment. As such, historians have attributed a number of fundamental changes to the period, notably the increasingly rapid progress of science and technology, the secularization of politics, and the diminution of the absolute authority of theRoman Catholic Church as well as the lessening of the influence of all faiths upon national governments. Many historians have identified the early modern period as the epoch in which individuals began to think of themselves as belonging to a national polity—a notable break from medieval modes of self-identification, which had been largely based upon religion (belonging to a universalChristendom), language, or feudal allegiance (belonging to the manor or extended household of a particularmagnate orlord).
The beginning of the early modern period is not clear-cut, but is generally accepted to be in the late 15th century or early 16th century. Significant dates in this transitional phase from medieval to early modern Europe can be noted:
The end date of the early modern period is variously associated with theIndustrial Revolution, which began in Britain in about 1750, or the beginning of theFrench Revolution in 1789, which drastically transformed the state ofEuropean politics and ushered in theNapoleonic era and modern Europe.
The role of nobles in theFeudal System had yielded to the notion of theDivine Right of Kings during theMiddle Ages (in fact, this consolidation of power from the land-owning nobles to the titular monarchs was one of the most prominent themes of the Middle Ages). Among the most notable political changes included the abolition ofserfdom and the crystallization of kingdoms into nation-states. Perhaps even more significantly, with the advent of theReformation, the notion ofChristendom as a unified political entity was destroyed. Many kings and rulers used this radical shift in the understanding of the world to further consolidate their sovereignty over their territories. For instance, many of the Germanic states (as well asEnglish Reformation) converted toProtestantism in an attempt to slip out of the grasp of the Pope.
The intellectual developments of the period included the creation of the economic theory ofmercantilism and the publication of enduringly influential works of political and social philosophy, such asMachiavelli'sThe Prince (1513) andThomas More'sUtopia (1515).
The Protestant Reformation was a reform-orientedschism from the RomanCatholic Church initiated byMartin Luther and continued byJohn Calvin,Huldrych Zwingli, and other earlyProtestant Reformers. It is typically dated from 1517, lasting until the end of theThirty Years' War (1618–1648) with thePeace of Westphalia in 1648. It was launched on 31 October 1517 byMartin Luther, who posted his95 Theses criticizing the practice of indulgences to the door of the Castle Church inWittenberg, Germany, commonly used to post notices to the University community. It was very widely publicized across Europe and caught fire. Luther began by criticizing the sale ofindulgences, insisting that the Pope had no authority overpurgatory and that the Catholic doctrine of themerits of the saints had no foundation in the gospel. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such assola scriptura andsola fide.
The Reformation ended in division and the establishment of new church movements. The four most important traditions to emerge directly from the Reformation wereLutheranism, theReformed (also calledCalvinist orPresbyterian) tradition,Anglicanism, and theAnabaptists. Subsequent Protestant churches generally trace their roots back to these initial four schools of the Reformation. It also led to theCatholic or Counter Reformation within the Roman Catholic Church through a variety of new spiritual movements, reforms of religious communities, the founding of seminaries, the clarification of Catholic theology as well as structural changes in the institution of the Church.[3]
The largest Protestant groups were theLutherans andCalvinists. Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland.[4]
The initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The availability of theprinting press provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The core motivation behind the Reformation wastheological, though many other factors played a part, including the rise ofnationalism, theWestern Schism that eroded faith in thePapacy, the perceived corruption of theRoman Curia, the impact ofhumanism, and the new learning of theRenaissance that questioned much traditional thought.[5]
There were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as theRadical Reformation, which gave rise to theAnabaptist,Moravian and otherPietistic movements.[6]
The Roman Catholic Church responded with aCounter-Reformation initiated by theCouncil of Trent. Much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of theJesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, came under the influence of Protestantism. Southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in theThirty Years' War, which left it devastated.[7]
The Reformation reshaped theChurch of England decisively after 1547. The separation of theChurch of England (or Anglican Church) from Rome underHenry VIII, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement; however, religious changes in the English national church proceeded more conservatively than elsewhere in Europe. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for decades, between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing, within the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions.[8]
The following outcomes of the Protestant Reformation regardinghuman capital formation, theProtestant ethic,economic development,governance, and "dark" outcomes have been identified by scholars.[9]
Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and also the theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of thenew social history in the 1960s look at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation was then seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement and textured and rich because of its diversity."[10]
"The Age of Enlightenment" refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a period which includes the Age of Reason. The term also more specifically refers to a historical intellectual movement,The Enlightenment. This movement advocatedrationality as a means to establish an authoritative system ofaesthetics, ethics, andlogic. The intellectual leaders of this movement regarded themselves as a courageous elite, and regarded their purpose as one of leading the world toward progress and out of a long period of doubtful tradition, full of irrationality, superstition, and tyranny, which they believed began during a historical period they called theDark Ages. This movement also provided a framework for theAmerican andFrench Revolutions, the Latin American independence movement, and thePolish–Lithuanian CommonwealthConstitution of May 3, and also led to the rise of liberalism and the birth ofsocialism andcommunism.[11] It is matched by the highbaroque and classical eras in music, and theneo-classical period in the arts, and receives contemporary application in the unity of science movement which includeslogical positivism.
The expression "early modern" is sometimes used as a substitute for the termRenaissance, and vice versa. However, "Renaissance" is properly used in relation to a diverse series of cultural developments; which occurred over several hundred years in many different parts of Europe—especially central and northern Italy—and span the transition from lateMedieval civilization and the opening of the early modern period.
The term "early modern" is most often applied to Europe, and its overseas empire. However, it has also been employed in the history of theOttoman Empire. In the historiography of Japan, theEdo period from 1590 to 1868 is also sometimes referred to as the "early modern" period.
The 17th century saw very little peace in Europe – major wars were fought in 95 years (every year except 1610, 1669 to 1671, and 1680 to 1682.)[12] The wars were unusually ugly. Europe in the late 17th century, 1648 to 1700, was an age of great intellectual, scientific, artistic and cultural achievement. Historian Frederick Nussbaum says it was:
"prolific in genius, in common sense, and in organizing ability. It could properly have been expected that intelligence, comprehension and high purpose would be applied to the control of human relations in general and to the relations between states and peoples in particular. The fact was almost completely opposite. It was a period of marked unintelligence, immorality and frivolity in the conduct of international relations, marked by wars undertaken for dimly conceived purposes, waged with the utmost brutality and conducted by reckless betrayals of allies."[13]
The worst came during theThirty Years' War, 1618–1648, which had an extremely negative impact on the civilian population of Germany and surrounding areas, with massive loss of life and disruption of the economy and society.
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The Reformation led to aseries of religious wars that culminated in theThirty Years' War (1618–1648), which devastated much ofGermany, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population.[14] Roman CatholicHouse of Habsburg and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, theCrown of Bohemia,Hungary,Slovene Lands, theSpanish Netherlands and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Roman Catholic Church. Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Roman Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. For the first time since the days of Martin Luther, political and national convictions again outweighed religious convictions in Europe.
Two main tenets of thePeace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:
The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power.Pope Innocent X declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bullZelo Domus Dei. European sovereigns, Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.[15]
Scholars taking a"realist" perspective on wars and diplomacy have emphasized thePeace of Westphalia (1648) as a dividing line. It ended theThirty Years' War (1618–1648), where religion and ideology had been powerful motivating forces for warfare. Westphalia, in the realist view, ushered in a new international system of sovereign states of roughly equal strength, dedicated not to ideology or religion but to enhance status, and territorial gains. The Catholic Church, for example, no longer devoted its energies to the very difficult task of reclaiming dioceses lost to Protestantism, but to build large-scale missions in overseas colonial possessions that could convert the natives by the thousands Using devoted members of society such as the Jesuits.[16] According toHamish Scott, the realist model assumes that "foreign policies were guided entirely by "Realpolitik," by the resulting struggle for resources and, eventually, by the search for what became known as a 'balance of power.'[17]
Diplomacy before 1700 was not well developed, and chances to avoid wars were too often squandered. In England, for example, King Charles II paid little attention to diplomacy, which proved disastrous. During the Dutch war of 1665–67, England had no diplomats stationed in Denmark or Sweden. When King Charles realized he needed them as allies, he sent special missions that were uninformed about local political, military, and diplomatic situations, and were ignorant of personalities and political factionalism. Ignorance produced a series of blunders that ruined their efforts to find allies.[18] King Louis XIV of France, by contrast, developed the most sophisticated diplomatic service, with permanent ambassadors and lesser ministers in major and minor capitals, all preparing steady streams of information and advice to Paris. Diplomacy became a career that proved highly attractive to rich senior aristocrats who enjoyed very high society at royal courts, especially because they carried the status of the most powerful nation in Europe. Increasingly, other nations copied the French model; French became the language of diplomacy, replacing Latin.[19] By 1700, the British and the Dutch, with small land armies, large navies, and large treasuries, used astute diplomacy to build alliances, subsidizing as needed land powers to fight on their side, or as in the case of the Hessians, hiring regiments of soldiers from mercenary princes in small countries.[20] The balance of power was very delicately calculated, so that winning a battle here was worth the slice of territory there, with no regard to the wishes of the inhabitants. Important peacemaking conferences at Utrecht (1713), Vienna (1738), Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) and Paris (1763) had a cheerful, cynical, game-like atmosphere in which professional diplomats cashed in victories like casino chips in exchange for territory.[21]
Since 1512, theHoly Roman Empire was also known as theHoly Roman Empire of theGerman nation. The HabsburgHouse of Austria held the position ofHoly Roman Emperors since the mid-1400s and for the entire Early modern period. Despite the lack of a centralized political structure in a period in which national monarchies were emerging, the Habsburg Emperors of the Early modern period came close to form auniversal monarchy in Western Europe.
The Habsburgs expanded their control within and outside the Holy Roman Empire as a result of the dynastic policy pursued byMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian I marriedMary of Burgundy, thus bringing theBurgundian Netherlands into the Habsburg inheritance. Their son,Philip the Handsome, marriedJoanna the Mad of Spain (daughter ofFerdinand II of Aragon andIsabella of Castile).Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (son of Philip and Joanna) inherited theHabsburg Netherlands in 1506,Habsburg Spain and its territories in 1516, andHabsburg Austria in 1519.
The main opponents of the Habsburg Empire were theOttoman Empire and theKingdom of France. The Habsburgs clashedwith France in a series of Italian wars. TheBattle of Pavia (1525) initiated the Habsburg primacy in Italy and the replacement of France as the main European power. Nevertheless, religious wars forced Charles V to abdicate in 1556 and divide the Habsburg possessions between Spain and Austria. The next Holy RomanEmperor Ferdinand I completed theCouncil of Trent and maintained Germany at peace until theThirty Years' War (1618–1648). The Habsburgs controlled the elective monarchies of Hungary and Bohemia as well, and eventually turned these states into hereditary domains.
In 1492 theCatholic Monarchs ofCastile andAragon fundedChristopher Columbus's plan to sail west to reach theIndies by crossing the Atlantic. He landed on a continent uncharted by Europeans and seen as anew world, the Americas. To prevent conflict between Portugal and Castile (the crown under which Columbus made the voyage), theTreaty of Tordesillas was signed dividing the world into two regions of exploration, where each had exclusive rights to claim newly discovered lands.[22]
The structure of the Spanish Empire was established under theSpanish Habsburgs (1516–1700) and under theSpanish Bourbon monarchs, the empire was brought under greater crown control and increased its revenues from the Indies.[23][24] The crown's authority in The Indies was enlarged by the papal grant ofpowers of patronage, giving it power in the religious sphere.[25][26][27]
UnderPhilip II of Spain, Spain, rather than the Habsburg empire, was identified as a more powerful nation than France and England globally. Furthermore, despite attacks from other European states, Spain retained its position of dominance with apparent ease. Spain controlled the Netherlands until theDutch revolt, and important states in southern Italy. The Spanish claims to Naples and Sicily dated back to the 15th century, but had been marred by rival claims until the mid-16th century and the rule of Philip II. There would be no Italian revolts against Spanish rule until 1647. The death of the Ottoman emperorSuleiman the Magnificent in 1566 and the naval victory over theOttoman Empire at theBattle of Lepanto in 1571 cemented the status of Spain as a superpower in Europe and the world. The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies of the Spanish Monarch in the Americas, Asia (Spanish Philippines), Europe and some territories in Africa and Oceania.
TheAncien Régime (French for "old regime") was the political and social system of theKingdom of France from about 1450 until theFrench Revolution that started in 1789.[28] The Ancien Régime was ruled by thelate Valois andBourbon dynasties. Much of the medieval political centralization of France had been lost in theHundred Years' War, and the Valois Dynasty's attempts at re-establishing control over the scattered political centres of the country were hindered by theWars of Religion). Much of the reigns ofHenry IV,Louis XIII and the early years ofLouis XIV were focused on administrative centralisation. Despite, however, the notion of "absolute monarchy" (typified by the king's right to issuelettres de cachet) and the efforts by the kings to create a centralized state, Ancien Régime France remained a country of systemic irregularities: administrative (including taxation), legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions and prerogatives frequently overlapped, while the French nobility struggled to maintain their own rights in the matters of local government and justice, and powerful internal conflicts (like theFronde) protested against this centralization.[29]
The need for centralization in this period was directly linked to the question of royal finances and the ability to wage war. The internal conflicts and dynastic crises of the 16th and 17th centuries (the wars between Catholics and Protestants and theHabsburg's internal family conflict) and the territorial expansion of France in the 17th century demanded great sums which needed to be raised through taxes, such as the land tax (taille) and the tax on salt (gabelle) and by contributions of men and service from the nobility. The key to this centralization was the replacing of personalpatronage systems organized around the king and other nobles by institutional systems around the state.[30] The creation ofintendants—representatives of royal power in the provinces—did much to undermine local control by regional nobles. The same was true of the greater reliance shown by the royal court on the "noblesse de robe" as judges and royal counselors. The creation of regionalparlements had initially the same goal of facilitating the introduction of royal power into newly assimilated territories, but as the parlements gained in self-assurance, they began to be sources of disunity.[31]
This period refers to England 1558–1603. TheElizabethan Era is the period associated with the reign ofQueen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and was agolden age in English cultural history. It was the height of theEnglish Renaissance, and saw the flowering ofEnglish literature andpoetry. This was also the time during whichElizabethan theatre grew.William Shakespeare, among others, composed highly innovative and powerful plays. It was an age of expansion and exploration abroad. At home theProtestant Reformation was established and successfully defended against the Catholic powers of Spain and France.[32]
TheJacobean era was the reignJames I of England (1603–1625). Overseas exploration and establishment of trading factories sped up, with the first permanent settlements in North America atJamestown, Virginia in 1607, inNewfoundland in 1610, and atPlymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620. One king now ruled England and Scotland; the latter was fully absorbed by theActs of Union 1707.[33]
The tumultuousCaroline era was the reign ofKing Charles I (1625–1645), followed by his beheading byOliver Cromwell's regime in 1649 . The Caroline era was dominated by the growing religious, political, and social conflict between the King and his supporters, termed the Royalist party, and thePuritan opposition that evolved in response to particular aspects of Charles' rule. The colonization of North America continued apace, with new colonies inMaryland (1634),Connecticut (1635), andRhode Island (1636).[34]
In early modern Europe, thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the largest country with a large population and was very powerful. It was the largest semi-democratically governed polity of its time. It had low taxes but managed to field thousands ofWinged Hussars who composed of nobility who followedSarmatism. ThePolish military routinely beat other respectable opponents such as the Ottomans, the Swedes and the Russians.
The papacy continued to exercise significant diplomatic influence during the Early modern period. The Popes were frequently assembling Holy Leagues to assert Catholic supremacy in Europe. During the Renaissance,Julius II andPaul III were largely involved in theItalian Wars and worked to preserve their primacy among the Italian princes. During the Counter-Reformation, the Papacy supported Catholic powers and factions all over Europe.Pope Pius V assembled the Catholic coalition that won theBattle of Lepanto against the Turks.Pope Sixtus V sided with the Catholics during theFrench wars of religion. Worldwide religious missions, such as theJesuit China mission, were established byPope Gregory XIII. Gregory XIII is also responsible for the establishment of theGregorian calendar. Following thePeace of Westphalia and the birth ofnation-states, Papal claims to universal authority came effectively to an end.
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