| Early Modern Britain | |||
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Early modern Britain is the history of the island ofGreat Britain roughly corresponding to the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Major historical events in early modern British history include numerous wars, especially with France, along with theEnglish Renaissance, theEnglish Reformation andScottish Reformation, theEnglish Civil War, the Restoration ofCharles II, theGlorious Revolution, theTreaty of Union, theScottish Enlightenment and the formation and the collapse of theFirst British Empire.
The term, "English Renaissance" is used by many historians to refer to a cultural movement in England in the 16th and 17th centuries that was heavily influenced by theItalian Renaissance. This movement is characterised by the flowering of English music (particularly the English adoption and development of the madrigal), notable achievements in drama (by William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson), and the development of English epic poetry (most famously Edmund Spenser'sThe Faerie Queene).[1]
The idea of the Renaissance has come under increased criticism by many cultural historians, and some have contended that the "English Renaissance" has no real tie with the artistic achievements and aims of the northern Italian artists (Leonardo,Michelangelo,Donatello) who are closely identified with theRenaissance.[citation needed]
Other cultural historians have countered that, regardless of whether the name "renaissance" is apt, there was undeniably an artistic flowering in England under theHouse of Tudor, culminating in Shakespeare and his contemporaries.[citation needed]
Some scholars date the beginning of Early Modern Britain to the end of theWars of the Roses and the crowning ofHenry Tudor in 1485 after his victory at thebattle of Bosworth Field. Henry VII's largely peaceful reign ended decades of civil war and brought the peace and stability to England needed for art and commerce to thrive. A major war on English soil would not occur again until theEnglish Civil War of the 17th century.[2][3][4] The Wars of the Roses claimed an estimated 105,000 dead.[5]
During this period Henry VII and his sonHenry VIII greatly increased the power of the English monarchy. A similar pattern was unfolding on the continent as new technologies, such asgunpowder, and social and ideological changes undermined the power of the feudal nobility and enhanced that of the sovereign. Henry VIII alsomade use of theProtestant Reformation to seize the power of theRoman Catholic Church,confiscating the property of the monasteries and declaring himself thehead of the newAnglican Church. Under the Tudors, the English state was centralized and rationalized as a bureaucracy built up and the government became run and managed by educated functionaries. The most notable new institution was theStar Chamber.
The new power of the monarch was given a basis by the notion of thedivine right of kings to rule over their subjects.James I was a major proponent of this idea and wrote extensively on it.[citation needed]
The same forces that had reduced the power of the traditional aristocracy also served to increase the power of the commercial classes. The rise of trade and the central importance of money to the operation of the government gave this new class great power, but power that was not reflected in the government structure. This would lead to a long contest during the 17th century between the forces of the monarch and parliament.[citation needed]
TheElizabethan Era is the reign ofQueen Elizabeth I and is known to be agolden age inEnglish history. It was the height of theEnglish Renaissance and saw the flowering ofEnglish literature andpoetry. This was also the time during whichElizabethan theatre was famous andWilliam Shakespeare, among others, composed plays that broke away from England's past style of plays and theatre. It was an age of expansion and exploration abroad, while at home theProtestant Reformation became entrenched in the national mindset.[6][7]
The Elizabethan Age is viewed so highly because of the contrasts with the periods before and after. It was a brief period of largely internal peace between theEnglish Reformation and the battles betweenProtestants andCatholics and the battles betweenparliament and themonarchy that engulfed the 17th century. The Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by theElizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism. England was also well-off compared to the other nations of Europe. TheItalian Renaissance had come to an end under the weight of foreign domination of the peninsula. France was embroiled in its own religious battles that would only be settled in 1598 with theEdict of Nantes. In part because of this, but also because the English had been expelled from their last outposts on the continent, the centuries long conflict between France and England was largely suspended for most of Elizabeth's reign.[citation needed]
The one great rival wasSpain, with which England conflicted both in Europe and theAmericas in skirmishes that exploded into theAnglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). The conflict might be said to be the first world war, in that it was fought on two continents (Europe and the Americas) and two oceans (theAtlantic and, just barely, thePacific).[8]
England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government, largely a result of the reforms ofHenry VII andHenry VIII. Economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade.
Scotland advanced markedly in educational terms during the 15th century with the founding of theUniversity of St Andrews in 1413, theUniversity of Glasgow in 1450 and theUniversity of Aberdeen in 1495, and with the passing of theEducation Act 1496.[9][10]
In 1468 the last great acquisition of Scottish territory occurred whenJames III marriedMargaret of Denmark, receiving theOrkney Islands and theShetland Islands in payment of her dowry.[citation needed]
After the death of James III in 1488, during or after the Battle of Sauchieburn, his successorJames IV successfully ended the quasi-independent rule of theLord of the Isles, bringing the Western Isles under effective Royal control for the first time. In 1503, he marriedHenry VII's daughter,Margaret Tudor, thus laying the foundation for the 17th centuryUnion of the Crowns. James IV's reign is often considered to be a period of cultural flourishing, and it was around this period that the EuropeanRenaissance began to infiltrate Scotland. James IV was the last Scottish king known to speakGaelic,[11] although some[who?] suggest his son could also.[citation needed]
In 1512, under a treaty extending the Auld Alliance, all nationals of Scotland and France also became nationals of each other's countries, a status not repealed in France until 1903 and which may never have been repealed in Scotland. However a year later, the Auld Alliance had more disastrous effects when James IV was required to launch an invasion of England to support the French when they were attacked by the English underHenry VIII. The invasion was stopped decisively at thebattle of Flodden during which the King, many of his nobles, and over 10,000 troops—The Flowers of the Forest—were killed. The extent of the disaster impacted throughout Scotland because of the large numbers killed, and once again Scotland's government lay in the hands of regents. The songThe Flooers o' the Forest commemorated this, an echo of the poemY Gododdin on a similar tragedy in about 600.[citation needed]
WhenJames V finally managed to escape from the custody of the regents with the aid of his redoubtable mother in 1528, he once again set about subduing the rebellious Highlands, Western and Northern isles, as his father had had to do. He married the French noblewomanMary of Guise. His reign was fairly successful, until another disastrous campaign against England led to defeat at thebattle of Solway Moss (1542). James died a short time later. The day before his death, he was brought news of the birth of an heir: a daughter, who becameMary, Queen of Scots. James is supposed to have remarked inScots that"it cam wi a lass, it will gang wi a lass"—referring to the House of Stewart which began with Walter Stewart's marriage to the daughter of Robert the Bruce. Once again, Scotland was in the hands of a regent, James Hamilton, Earl of Arran.[citation needed]
Within two years, theRough Wooing, Henry VIII's military attempt to force a marriage between Mary and his son, Edward, had begun. There was border skirmishing and in May 1544,a large English army burnt Edinburgh. In 1547, after the death of Henry VIII forces under the English regentEdward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset were victorious at theBattle of Pinkie, the climax of the Rough Wooing, and followed up byoccupying Haddington.[citation needed]
Mary was sent to France at the age of five, as the intended bride of the heir to the French throne. Her mother,Mary of Guise, stayed in Scotland to look after the interests of Mary and of France, while theEarl of Arran continued to act as Regent. Mary returned to Scotland after the death of her husband,Francis II of France.[citation needed]
Mary lost control of Scotland after seven years and was imprisoned for a time inLochleven Castle and forced to abdicate. She eventually escaped and attempted to regain the throne by force. After her defeat at theBattle of Langside in 1568 she took refuge in England, leaving her young son,James VI, in the hands of regents. In England she became a focal point for Catholic conspirators and was eventually executed on the orders of her kinswomanElizabeth I.
During the 16th century, Scotland underwent aProtestant Reformation. In the earlier part of the century, the teachings of firstMartin Luther and thenJohn Calvin began to influence Scotland. The execution of a number of Protestant preachers, most notably the Lutheran influencedPatrick Hamilton in 1528 and later the proto-CalvinistGeorge Wishart in 1546 who was burnt at the stake in St. Andrews byCardinal Beaton for heresy, did nothing to stem the growth of these ideas. Beaton was assassinated shortly after the execution of George Wishart.
The eventual Reformation of the Scottish Church followed a brief civil war in 1559–60, in which English intervention at thesiege of Leith on the Protestant side was decisive. A Reformed confession of faith was adopted byParliament in 1560, while the youngMary, Queen of Scots, was still in France. The most influential figure wasJohn Knox, who had been a disciple of both John Calvin and George Wishart.Roman Catholicism was not eliminated, and remained strong particularly in parts of the highlands.
The Reformation remained somewhat precarious through the reign of Queen Mary, who remained Roman Catholic but tolerated Protestantism. Following her deposition in 1567, her infant sonJames VI was raised as a Protestant. In 1603, following the death of the childless QueenElizabeth I, the crown of England passed to James. He took the titleJames I of England and James VI of Scotland, thus unifying these two countries under his personal rule. For a time, this remained the only political connection between two independent nations, but it foreshadowed the eventual 1707 union of Scotland and England under the banner of the Great Britain.
TheUnion of the Crowns refers to the accession ofJames VI,King of Scots, to the throne as KingJames I of England while remaining King James VI of Scotland. One man ruled two separate kingdoms with separate governments and cabinets. The two countries remained distinct and separate until theActs of Union 1707. Within eight hours of the death of Elizabeth, James was proclaimed king in London, the news received without protest or disturbance.[12]
TheJacobean era refers to the years of the reign of James I in England, 1603–1625. The Jacobean era succeeds theElizabethan era and precedes theCaroline era, and specifically denotes a style ofarchitecture,visual arts,decorative arts, andliterature that is predominant of that period.
TheCaroline era refers to the years of the reign of KingCharles I over both countries, 1625–1642. It was followed by theEnglish Civil War (1642–1651) and theEnglish Interregnum (1651–1660), when there was no king.
TheEnglish Civil War consisted of a series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between Parliamentarians (known asRoundheads) and Royalists (known asCavaliers) between 1642 and 1651. Thefirst (1642–1646) andsecond (1648–1649)civil wars pitted the supporters ofKing Charles I against the supporters of theLong Parliament, while thethird war (1649–1651) saw fighting between supporters ofKing Charles II and supporters of theRump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at theBattle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. TheDiggers were a group begun byGerrard Winstanley in 1649 who attempted to reform the existingsocial order with an agrarian lifestyle based upon their ideas for the creation of smallegalitarian rural communities. They were one of a number ofnonconformistdissenting groups that emerged around this time.
TheEnglishInterregnum was the period ofparliamentary andmilitary rule in the land occupied by modern-dayEngland andWales after the English Civil War. It began with theregicide ofCharles I in 1649 and ended with therestoration ofCharles II in 1660.
The Civil War led to the trial andexecution of Charles I, the exile of his son Charles II, and the replacement of the English monarchy with first theCommonwealth of England (1649–1653) and then withThe Protectorate (1653–1659), under the personal rule ofOliver Cromwell. Upon his death, his son took over, but proved a weak ruler with very little support. The military and religious elements that supported Cromwell began disputing with each other.
In 1660, the remaining members of theLong Parliament (1640–1660) rejected the anarchy and confusion since Cromwell's death. Elite and popular opinion called for a restoration of the monarchy under the Stuarts. There was widespread revulsion against the intense moralism and high taxes of theRule of the Major-Generals in 1657. Nostalgia for Royal traditionalism was strong. Gen.George Monck, a former supporter of Cromwell, led the movement for a royal restoration. Charles II in exile paid close attention to the developments and readied himself to take the throne. From Breda in Holland he issued theDeclaration of Breda, promising generosity and indicating his willingness to leave the settlement to Parliament. The Convention Parliament, which had been elected to negotiate with the King, invited Charles to return. He landed at Dover amid great enthusiasm on May 26, 1660.[13]
The new parliament, known as theCavalier Parliament enacted theClarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-establishedChurch of England. Strict rules were set up such that only genuine members of the established Church could hold office. The major foreign policy issue was the trade rivalry with the Dutch, leading to the inconclusiveSecond Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–67. The only positive result was the acquisition ofNew Netherland, which became New York.
Coincidental with the war with the Dutch was theGreat Plague of London of 1665–66, which at its worst cost 1000 deaths a day in London. On top of that, theGreat Fire of London burned out the main commercial districts of London; it destroyed 13,000 buildings, but few lives were lost. In 1670, King Charles entered into theSecret Treaty of Dover, an alliance with his first cousin KingLouis XIV. Louis agreed to aid him in theThird Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, and Charles secretly promised to convert to Catholicism at an unspecified future date; he did so on his deathbed. Charles attempted to introduce religious equality for Catholics and non-Anglican Protestant dissenters with his 1672Royal Declaration of Indulgence.
Elite opinion rejected it and Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679,Titus Oates's highly exaggerated revelations of a supposed "Popish Plot" sparked theExclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charles's brother and heir (James, Duke of York) was a Catholic. The issue was whether or not to exclude James from succession to the throne. The crisis sparked the creation of the first political parties: the pro-exclusionWhig Party demanded that James never reach the throne. The anti-exclusionTory party believed it was against God's will to interfere with the legitimate succession, and supported both the King and James. After the discovery of the failed 1683Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James, some Whig leaders were executed or forced into exile. Charles dissolved Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685.[14][15][16]
When Charles II died in 1685, his brother becameKing James II; he ruled with the support of the Tory party. He forced a series of highly unpopular proposals that would restore Catholicism to England. TheMonmouth Rebellion broke out in western areas that was brutally suppressed. Elite opinion strongly turned against the king, and in late 1688 the elites invitedWilliam III andMary II to govern.[17] James went into exile in France, where his claims to the English throne were promoted by King Louis XIV. In England the claims were upheld by theJacobite faction of Tories, who in alliance with France were a military threat to the throne for the next half-century.[18]
William III ruled 1689–1702, while his wifeQueen Mary II was the nominal co-ruler until her death in 1694. Constitutionally, the Glorious Revolution established a precedent that British monarchs could not govern without the consent of Parliament, as enacted through theGlorious Revolution of 1688, the passage of theEnglish Bill of Rights, and theHanoverian succession.[19]
TheAnglo-Dutch Wars were a series of three wars which took place between the English and the Dutch from 1652 to 1674. The causes included political disputes and increasing competition from merchant shipping.[20] Religion was not a factor, since both sides were Protestant. The British in thefirst war (1652–54) had the naval advantage with larger numbers of more powerful "ships of the line" which were well suited to the naval tactics of the era. The British also captured numerous Dutch merchant ships. In thesecond war (1665–67) Dutch naval victories followed. This second war cost London ten times more than it had planned on, and the king sued for peace in 1667 with theTreaty of Breda. It ended the fights over "mercantilism" (the use of force to protect and expand national trade, industry, and shipping). Meanwhile, the French were building up fleets that threatened both the Netherlands and Great Britain. In thethird war (1672–74), the British counted on a new alliance with France but the outnumbered Dutch outsailed both of them, and King Charles II ran short of money and political support. The Dutch gained domination of sea trading routes until 1713. The British gained the thriving colony ofNew Netherland, and renamed it New York.[21]
The 18th century was characterised by numerous major wars,[22] especially with France, with the growth and collapse of the First British Empire, with the origins of the Second British Empire, and with steady economic and social growth at home.[23][24]
Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant that the two countries entered theNine Years' War as allies, but the conflict – waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance – left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget on the costly land war in Europe.[25] The 18th century would see England (after 1707,Great Britain) rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, and France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage.[26]
In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with theHoly Roman Empire against Spain and France in theWar of the Spanish Succession. The conflict, which France and Spain were to lose, lasted until 1714. The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, gainingNewfoundland andAcadia, and from Spain,Gibraltar andMenorca.Gibraltar, which is still part of theBritish Overseas Territories to this day, became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean.[27]
The unitedKingdom of Great Britain was born on May 1, 1707, shortly after the parliaments ofScotland andEngland had ratified theTreaty of Union of 1706 by each approvingActs of Union combining the two parliaments and the two royal titles. Deeper political integration had been a key policy ofQueen Anne (reigned 1702–14). Under the aegis of the Queen and her advisors aTreaty of Union was drawn up, and negotiations between England and Scotland began in earnest in 1706.[28]
Scottish proponents of union believed that failure to accede to the Bill would result in the imposition of union under less favourable terms, and months of fierce debate in both capital cities and throughout both kingdoms followed. In Scotland, the debate on occasion dissolved into civil disorder, most notably by the notorious 'Edinburgh Mob'. The prospect of a union of the kingdoms was deeply unpopular among the Scottish population at large, and talk of an uprising was widespread.[29] However Scotland could not long continue. Following the financially disastrousDarien scheme, the near-bankruptParliament of Scotland reluctantly accepted the proposals. Supposed financial payoffs to Scottish parliamentarians were later referred to byRobert Burns when he wrote "We're bought and sold for English gold,Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation![30] Recent historians, however, have emphasised the legitimacy of the vote.[31]
The Acts of Union took effect in 1707, uniting the separate Parliaments and crowns of England and Scotland and forming the singleKingdom of Great Britain. Queen Anne (already Queen of both England and Scotland) became formally the first occupant of the unified British throne, with Scotland sending forty-five Members to join all existing Members from the parliament of England in the newHouse of Commons of Great Britain, as well as 16Scottish representative peers to join all existing peers from the parliament of England in the newHouse of Lords.
Dynastic security was a factor in Britain, as, indeed, it was in other countries. TheHouse of Stuart had abdicated the throne when King James II (1633–1701) fled to France in 1688. However he and his sonJames Francis Edward Stuart claimed to be the legitimate kings, and had the support of important elements in England, as well asKing Louis XIV. The main issue was religion; the Stuarts had the support of Catholic Europe, while the Whigs in Britain were staunch opponents of Catholicism. The great majority of Tories refused to support the Jacobites publicly, although there were numerous quiet supporters.[32] After the death of King William III (1702) and Queen Anne (1714), the succession went to the ProtestantHouse of Hanover, starting with King George I in 1714. They were Germans who were not especially popular in Britain. The island nation was vulnerable only to a seaborne invasion, which the Jacobites plotted and attempted. The major attempts were theJacobite rising of 1715 and theJacobite rising of 1745. Both failed to rally significant popular support, and the Jacobite defeat at theBattle of Culloden in 1746 ending any realistic hope of a Stuart restoration.[33] HistorianBasil Williams says, "there was never any serious danger to the dynasty."[34]
The era was prosperous as entrepreneurs extended the range of their business around the globe. By the 1720s Britain was one of the most prosperous countries in the world, andDaniel Defoe boasted:
While the other major powers were primarily motivated toward territorial gains, and protection of their dynasties (such as the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasties, and theHouse of Hohenzollern), Britain had a different set of primary interests. Its main diplomatic goal (besides protecting the homeland from invasion) was building a worldwide trading network for its merchants, manufacturers, shippers and financiers. This required a hegemonicRoyal Navy so powerful that no rival could sweep its ships from the world's trading routes, or invade the British Isles. The London government enhanced the private sector by incorporating numerous privately financed London-based companies for establishing trading posts and opening import-export businesses across the world. Each was given a monopoly of trade to the specified geographical region. The first enterprise was theMuscovy Company set up in 1555 to trade with Russia. Other prominent enterprises included theEast India Company, and theHudson's Bay Company in Canada.
The Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa had been set up in 1662 to trade in gold, ivory and slaves in Africa; it was reestablished as theRoyal African Company in 1672 and focused on the slave trade. British involvement in thetriangular slave trade paid off handsomely in terms of its profits. Even the loss of the 13 colonies was made up by a very favorable trading relationship with the new United States of America. British gained dominance in the trade with India, and largely dominated the highly lucrative slave, sugar, and commercial trades originating in West Africa and the West Indies. China would be next on the agenda. Other powers set up similar monopolies on a much smaller scale; only the Netherlands emphasized trade as much as England.[36][37] British exports soared from £6.5 million in 1700, to £14.7 million in 1760 and £43.2 million in 1800.[38]
There was one major fiasco that caused heavy losses. TheSouth Sea Bubble was a business enterprise that exploded in scandal. TheSouth Sea Company was a private business corporation supposedly set up much like the other trading companies, with a focus on South America. Its actual purpose was to renegotiate previous high-interest government loans amounting to £31 million throughmarket manipulation and speculation. It issued stock four times in 1720 that reached about 8,000 investors. Prices kept soaring every day, from £130 a share to £1,000, with insiders making huge paper profits. The Bubble collapsed overnight, ruining many speculators. Investigations showed bribes had reached into high places—even to the king. His chief ministerRobert Walpole managed to wind it down with minimal political and economic damage, although some losers fled to exile or committed suicide.[39][40]
An important result of theTreaty of Utrecht was the enlarging of Britain's role in the slave trade.[41] Of special importance was the successful secret negotiation with France to obtain thirty-year monopoly on the Spanish slave trade, known as theAsiento de Negros. Anne also allowed colonies like Virginia to make laws that promoted black slavery. Anne had secretly negotiated with France to get its approval regarding theAsiento.[42] She boasted to Parliament of her success in taking theAsiento away from France and London celebrated her economic coup.[43] Most of the slave trade involved sales to Spanish colonies in the Caribbean, and to Mexico, as well as sales to British colonies in the Caribbean and in North America.[44]
Historian Vinita Ricks says the agreement allotted Queen Anne "22.5% (and King Philip V, of Spain 28%) of all profits collected for her personal fortune." Ricks concludes that the Queen's "connection to slave trade revenue meant that she was no longer a neutral observer. She had a vested interest in what happened on slave ships."[45] In addition to sales to the Spanish colonies, Britain had its own sugar islands in the Caribbean, especially Jamaica, Barbados, Nevis, and Antigua, which provided a steady flow of profits from the slave labor that produced the sugar.[46]
From 1700 to 1850, Britain was involved in 137 wars or rebellions. Apart from losing theAmerican Revolutionary War, it was generally successful in warfare, and was especially successful in financing its military commitments. France and Spain, by contrast, went bankrupt. Britain maintained a relatively large and expensiveRoyal Navy, along with a small standing army. When the need arose for soldiers it hired mercenaries or financed allies who fielded armies. The rising costs of warfare forced a shift in government financing from the income from royal agricultural estates and special imposts and taxes to reliance on customs and excise taxes and, after 1790, an income tax. Working with bankers in the City, the government raised large loans during wartime and paid them off in peacetime. The rise in taxes amounted to 20% of national income, but the private sector benefited from the increase in economic growth. The demand for war supplies stimulated the industrial sector, particularly naval supplies, munitions and textiles, which gave Britain an advantage in international trade during the postwar years.[47][48][49]
TheSeven Years' War, which began in 1756, was the first war waged on a global scale, fought in Europe, India, North America, the Caribbean, the Philippines and coastal Africa. The signing of theTreaty of Paris (1763) had important consequences for Britain and its empire. In North America, France's future as a colonial power there was effectively ended with the ceding ofNew France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) andLouisiana to Spain. Spain cededFlorida to Britain. In India, theCarnatic War had left France still in control of itsenclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, effectively leaving the future of India to Britain. TheBritish victory over France in the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's dominant colonial power.[50]
During the 1760s and 1770s, relations between theThirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's ability to tax American colonists without their consent.[51] Disagreement turned to violence and in 1775 theAmerican Revolutionary War began. The following year, the colonistsdeclared the independence of the United States and with economic and naval assistance from France, would go on to win the war in 1783. TheTreaties of Versailles were signed, also ending war with theFrench andSpanish. TheFourth Anglo-Dutch War ended the following year.
The loss of the United States, at the time Britain's most populous colony, is seen by historians as the event defining the transition between the "first" and "second" empires,[52] in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa.Adam Smith'sThe Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and thatfree trade should replace the oldmercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal. The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783[53] confirmed Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success.
During its 1st century of operation, the focus of theBritish East India Company had been trade, not the building of an empire in India. Company interests turned from trade to territory during the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined in power and the British East India Company struggled with its French counterpart,La Compagnie française des Indes orientales, during theCarnatic Wars of the 1740s and 1750s. TheBattle of Plassey, which saw the British, led byRobert Clive, defeat the French and their Indian allies, left the Company in control ofBengal and a major military and political power in India. In the following decades it gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or indirectly via local puppet rulers under the threat of force of theIndian Army, 80% of which was composed of native Indiansepoys.
In 1770,James Cook became the first European to visit the eastern coast of Australia whilst on a scientificvoyage to the South Pacific. In 1778,Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability ofBotany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment ofconvicts set sail, arriving in 1788.
At the threshold to the 19th century, Britain was challenged again by France underNapoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations.[54]
It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was threatened: Napoleon threatened invasion of Britain itself, and with it, a fate similar to the countries of continental Europe that his armies had overrun. TheNapoleonic Wars were therefore ones that Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win. French ports were blockaded by theRoyal Navy, which won a decisive victory over the French fleet atTrafalgar in 1805.
Recently historians have undertaken a deeper exploration of the growth of state power. They especially look at thelong 18th century, from about 1660 to 1837 from four fresh perspectives.[55] The first approach, developed byOliver MacDonagh, presented an expansive and centralized administrative state while deemphasizing the influence of Benthamite utilitarianism.[56]
The second approach, as developed by Edward Higgs, conceptualizes the state as an information-gathering entity, paying special attention to local registrars and the census. He brings in such topics as spies, surveillance of Catholics, the 1605 Gunpowder Plot led by Guy Fawkes to overthrow the government, and the Poor Laws, and demonstrates similarities to the surveillance society of the 21st century.[57]
John Brewer introduced the third approach with his depiction of the unexpectedly powerful, centralized 'fiscal-military' state during the eighteenth century.[58][59] Finally, there have been numerous recent studies that explore the state as an abstract entity capable of commanding the loyalties of those people over whom it rules.
