 | |
| Geographical range | Mesopotamia |
|---|---|
| Period | Bronze Age |
| Dates | fl.c. 2900 – c. 2350 BC(middle) |
| Type site | Tell Khafajah,Tell Agrab,Tell Asmar |
| Major sites | Tell Abu Shahrain,Tell al-Madain,Tell as-Senkereh,Tell Abu Habbah,Tell Fara,Tell Uheimir,Tell al-Muqayyar,Tell Bismaya,Tell Hariri |
| Preceded by | Jemdet Nasr Period |
| Followed by | Akkadian Period |
TheEarly Dynastic Period (abbreviatedED Period orED) is anarchaeological culture inMesopotamia (modern-dayIraq) that is generally dated toc. 2900 – c. 2350 BC and was preceded by theUruk andJemdet Nasr periods. It saw thedevelopment of writing and the formation of the firstcities andstates. The ED itself was characterized by the existence of multiplecity-states: small states with a relatively simple structure that developed and solidified over time. This development ultimately led, directly after this period, to broad Mesopotamian unification under the rule ofSargon, the first monarch of theAkkadian Empire. Despite their political fragmentation, the ED city-states shared a relatively homogeneous material culture.Sumerian cities such asUruk,Ur,Lagash,Umma, andNippur located in Lower Mesopotamia were very powerful and influential. To the north and west stretched states centered on cities such asKish,Mari,Nagar, andEbla.
The study of Central and Lower Mesopotamia has long been given priority over neighboring regions.Archaeological sites in Central and Lower Mesopotamia—notablyGirsu but alsoEshnunna,Khafajah, Ur, and many others—have been excavated since the 19th century. These excavations have yieldedcuneiform texts and many other importantartifacts. As a result, this area was better known than neighboring regions, but the excavation and publication of the archives ofEbla have changed this perspective by shedding more light on surrounding areas, such asUpper Mesopotamia, westernSyria, and southwesternIran. These new findings revealed that Lower Mesopotamia shared many socio-cultural developments with neighboring areas and that the entirety of theancient Near East participated in an exchange network in which material goods and ideas were being circulated.
Dutch archaeologistHenri Frankfort coined the term Early Dynastic (ED) period for Mesopotamia, the naming convention having been borrowed from the similarly namedEarly Dynastic (ED) period for Egypt.[2] Theperiodization was developed in the 1930s during excavations that were conducted by Henri Frankfort on behalf of theUniversity of Chicago Oriental Institute at the archaeological sites ofTell Khafajah,Tell Agrab, andTell Asmar in theDiyala Region of Iraq.[3]
The ED was divided into the sub-periods ED I, II, and III. This was primarily based on complete changes over time in the plan of the Abu Temple of Tell Asmar, which had been rebuilt multiple times on exactly the same spot.[3] During the 20th century, many archaeologists also tried to impose the scheme of ED I–III upon archaeological remains excavated elsewhere in both Iraq and Syria, dated to 3000–2000 BC. However, evidence from sites elsewhere in Iraq has shown that the ED I–III periodization, as reconstructed for the Diyala river valley region, could not be directly applied to other regions.
Research in Syria has shown that developments there were quite different from those in the Diyala river valley region or southern Iraq, rendering the traditional Lower Mesopotamian chronology useless. During the 1990s and 2000s, attempts were made by various scholars to arrive at a local Upper Mesopotamian chronology, resulting in the Early Jezirah (EJ) 0–V chronology that encompasses everything from 3000 to 2000 BC.[2] The use of the ED I–III chronology is now generally limited to Lower Mesopotamia, with the ED II sometimes being further restricted to the Diyala river valley region or discredited altogether.[2][3]
The ED was preceded by theJemdet Nasr and then succeeded by theAkkadian period, during which, for the first time in history, large parts of Mesopotamia were united under a single ruler. The entirety of the ED is now generally dated to approximately 2900–2350 BC according to the widely acceptedmiddle chronology or 2800–2230 BC according to theshort chronology, which is increasingly less accepted by scholars.[2][4] The ED was divided into the ED I, ED II, ED IIIa, and ED IIIb sub-periods. ED I–III were more or less contemporary with the Early Jezirah (EJ) I–III in Upper Mesopotamia.[2] The exact dating of the ED sub-periods varies between scholars—with some abandoning ED II and using only Early ED and Late ED instead and others extending ED I while allowing ED III begin earlier so that ED III was to begin immediately after ED I with no gap between the two.[2][3][5][6]
Many historical periods in the Near East are named after the dominant political force at that time, such as the Akkadian or Ur III periods. This is not the case for the ED Period. It is an archaeological division that does not reflect political developments, and it is based upon perceived changes in the archaeological record, e.g. pottery and glyptics. This is because the political history of the ED is unknown for most of its duration. As with the archaeological subdivision, the reconstruction of political events is hotly debated among researchers.
| Period | Middle Chronology All dates BC | Short Chronology All dates BC |
|---|---|---|
| ED I | 2900–2750/2700 | 2800–2600 |
| ED II | 2750/2700–2600 | 2600–2500 |
| ED IIIa | 2600–2500/2450 | 2500–2375 |
| ED IIIb | 2500/2450–2350 | 2375–2230 |
The ED I (2900–2750/2700 BC) is poorly known, relative to the sub-periods that followed it. In Lower Mesopotamia, it shared characteristics with the final stretches of the Uruk (c. 3300–3100 BC) and Jemdet Nasr (c. 3100–2900 BC) periods.[8] ED I is contemporary with the culture of theScarlet Ware pottery typical of sites along the Diyala in Lower Mesopotamia, theNinevite V culture in Upper Mesopotamia, and theProto-Elamite culture in southwesternIran.[9]
New artistic traditions developed in Lower Mesopotamia during the ED II (2750/2700–2600 BC). These traditions influenced the surrounding regions. According to later Mesopotamian historical tradition, this was the time when legendary mythical kings such asLugalbanda,Enmerkar,Gilgamesh, andAga ruled over Mesopotamia. Archaeologically, this sub-period has not been well-attested to in excavations of Lower Mesopotamia, leading some researchers to abandon it altogether.[10]
The ED III (2600–2350 BC) saw an expansion in the use of writing and increasing social inequality. Larger political entities developed in Upper Mesopotamia and southwestern Iran. ED III is usually further subdivided into the ED IIIa (2600–2500/2450 BC) and ED IIIb (2500/2450–2350 BC). TheRoyal Cemetery at Ur and the archives ofFara andAbu Salabikh date back to ED IIIa. The ED IIIb is especially well known through the archives of Girsu (part of Lagash) in Iraq and Ebla in Syria.
The end of the ED is not defined archaeologically but rather politically. The conquests of Sargon and his successors upset the political equilibrium throughout Iraq, Syria, and Iran. The conquests lasted many years into the reign ofNaram-Sin of Akkad and built on ongoing conquests during the ED. The transition is much harder to pinpoint within an archaeological context. It is virtually impossible to date a particular site as being that of either ED III or Akkadian period using ceramic or architectural evidence alone.[11][12][13][14]
The contemporary sources from the Early Dynastic Period do not allow the reconstruction of a political history. Royal inscriptions only offer a glimpse of the military conflicts and relations among the different city-states. Instead, rulers were more interested in glorifying their pious acts, such as the construction and restoration of temples and offerings to the gods.
For the ED I and ED II periods, there are no contemporary documents shedding any light on warfare or diplomacy. Only for the end of the ED III period are contemporary texts available from which a political history can be reconstructed. The largest archives come from Lagash and Ebla. Smaller collections ofclay tablets have been found at Ur, Tell Beydar, Tell Fara, Abu Salabikh, and Mari.[6] They show that the Mesopotamian states were constantly involved in diplomatic contacts, leading to political and perhaps even religious alliances. Sometimes one state would gain hegemony over another, which foreshadows the rise of the Akkadian Empire.
The well-knownSumerian King List dates to the early second millennium BC. It consists of a succession of royal dynasties from different Sumerian cities, ranging back into the Early Dynastic Period. Each dynasty rises to prominence and dominates the region, only to be replaced by the next. The document was used by later Mesopotamian kings to legitimize their rule. While some of the information in the list can be checked against other texts such as economic documents, much of it is probably fictional, and its use as a historical document for the Early Dynastic Period is limited to none.[6]
The preceding Uruk period in Lower Mesopotamia saw the appearance of the first cities, early state structures, administrative practices, and writing. Evidence for these practices was attested to during the Early Dynastic Period.
The ED Period is the first for which it is possible to say something about theethnic composition of the population of Lower Mesopotamia. This is due to the fact that texts from this period contained sufficient phonetic signs to distinguish separate languages. They also contained personal names, which can potentially be linked to an ethnic identity. The textual evidence suggested that Lower Mesopotamia during the ED Period was largely dominated bySumer and primarily occupied by theSumerian people, who spoke a non-Semiticlanguage isolate (Sumerian). It is debated whether Sumerian was already in use during the Uruk period.[16]
Textual evidence indicated the existence of a Semitic population in the upper reaches of Lower Mesopotamia. The texts in question contained personal names and words from aSemitic language, identified asOld Akkadian. However, the use of the termAkkadian before the emergence of the Akkadian Empire is problematic[why?], and it has been proposed to refer to this Old Akkadian phase as being of the "Kish civilization" named afterKish (the seemingly most powerful city during the ED Period) instead.[17][18][19] Political and socioeconomic structures in these two regions also differed, although Sumerian influence is unparalleled during the Early Dynastic Period.
Agriculture in Lower Mesopotamia relied on intensiveirrigation. Cultivars includedbarley anddate palms in combination with gardens and orchards.Animal husbandry was also practiced, focusing on sheep and goats.[20] This agricultural system was probably the most productive in the entire ancient Near East. It allowed the development of a highly urbanized society. It has been suggested that, in some areas of Sumer, the population of the urban centers during ED III represented three-quarters of the entire population.[21][22]
The dominant political structure was thecity-state in which a large urban center dominated the surrounding rural settlements. The territories of these city-states were in turn delimited by other city-states that were organized along the same principles. The most important centers wereUruk,Ur,Lagash,Adab, andUmma-Gisha. Available texts from this period point to recurring conflicts between neighboring kingdoms, notably between Umma and Lagash.
The situation may have been different further north, where Semitic people seem to have been dominant. In this area, Kish was possibly the center of a large territorial state, competing with other powerful political entities such as Mari andAkshak.[16][23]
TheDiyala River valley is another region for which the ED Period is relatively well-known. Along with neighboring areas, this region was home to Scarlet Ware—a type of painted pottery characterized by geometric motifs representing natural and anthropomorphic figures. In theJebel Hamrin, fortresses such as Tell Gubba and Tell Maddhur were constructed. It has been suggested[by whom?] that these sites were established to protect the main trade route from the Mesopotamian lowlands to the Iranian plateau. The main Early Dynastic sites in this region are Tell Asmar and Khafajah. Their political structure is unknown, but these sites were culturally influenced by the larger cities in the Mesopotamian lowland.[8][24][25]
At the beginning of the third millennium BC, the Ninevite V culture flourished in Upper Mesopotamia and theMiddle Euphrates River region. It extended fromYorghan Tepe in the east to theKhabur Triangle in the west. Ninevite V was contemporary with ED I and marked an important step in theurbanization of the region.[24][26] The period seems to have experienced a phase of decentralization, as reflected by the absence of large monumental buildings and complex administrative systems similar to what had existed at the end of the fourth millennium BC.
Starting in 2700 BC and accelerating after 2500, the main urban sites grew considerably in size and were surrounded by towns and villages that fell inside their political sphere of influence. This indicated that the area was home to many political entities. Many sites in Upper Mesopotamia, includingTell Chuera andTell Beydar, shared a similar layout: a maintell surrounded by a circular lower town. German archaeologistMax von Oppenheim called themKranzhügel, or "wreath mound". Among the important sites of this period areTell Brak (Nagar),Tell Mozan,Tell Leilan, andChagar Bazar in the Jezirah and Mari on the middle Euphrates.[27]
Urbanization also increased in western Syria, notably in the second half of the third millennium BC. Sites likeTell Banat,Tell Hadidi,Umm el-Marra,Qatna, Ebla, andAl-Rawda developed early state structures, as evidenced by the written documentation of Ebla. Substantial monumental architecture such as palaces, temples, and monumental tombs appeared in this period. There is also evidence for the existence of a rich and powerful local elite.[28]
The two cities of Mari and Ebla dominate the historical record for this region. According to the excavator of Mari, the circular city on the middle Euphrates was foundedex nihilo at the time of the Early Dynastic I period in Lower Mesopotamia.[20][29][30] Mari was one of the main cities of the Middle East during this period, and it fought many wars against Ebla during the 24th century BC. The archives of Ebla, capital city of a powerful kingdom during the ED IIIb period, indicated that writing and the state were well-developed, contrary to what had been believed about this area before its discovery. However, few buildings from this period have been excavated at the site of Ebla itself.[20][29][31]
The territories of these kingdoms were much larger than in Lower Mesopotamia.Population density, however, was much lower than in the south wheresubsistence agriculture andpastoralism were more intensive. Towards the west, agriculture takes on more "Mediterranean" aspects: the cultivation ofolive andgrape was very important in Ebla. Sumerian influence was notable in Mari and Ebla. At the same time, these regions with a Semitic population shared characteristics with theKish civilization while also maintaining their own unique cultural traits.[17][18][19]
In southwestern Iran, the first half of the Early Dynastic Period corresponded with theProto-Elamite period. This period was characterized by indigenous art, a script that has not yet been deciphered, and an elaboratemetallurgy in theLorestan region. This culture disappeared toward the middle of the third millennium, to be replaced by a lesssedentary way of life. Due to the absence of written evidence and a lack of archaeological excavations targeting this period, the socio-political situation of Proto-Elamite Iran is not well understood. Mesopotamian texts indicated that the Sumerian kings dealt with political entities in this area. For example, legends relating to the kings of Uruk referred to conflicts againstAratta. As of 2017[update] Aratta had not been identified, but it is believed to have been located somewhere in southwestern Iran.[citation needed]
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In the middle third millennium BC,Elam emerged as a powerful political entity in the area of southern Lorestan and northernKhuzestan.[32][23]Susa (level IV) was a central place in Elam and an important gateway between southwestern Iran and southern Mesopotamia.Hamazi was located in theZagros Mountains to the north or east of Elam, possibly between theGreat Zab and theDiyala River, nearHalabja.[23]
This is also the area where the still largely unknownJiroft culture emerged in the third millennium BC, as evidenced by excavation and looting of archaeological sites.[33] The areas further north and to the east were important participants in the international trade of this period due to the presence oftin (central Iran and theHindu Kush) andlapis lazuli (Turkmenistan and northernAfghanistan). Settlements such asTepe Sialk,Tureng Tepe,Tepe Hissar,Namazga-Tepe,Altyndepe,Shahr-e Sukhteh, andMundigak served as local exchange and production centres but do not seem to have been capitals of larger political entities.[29][34][35]
The further development of maritime trade in thePersian Gulf led to increased contacts between Lower Mesopotamia and other regions. Starting in the previous period, the area of modern-dayOman—known in ancient texts asMagan—had seen the development of theoasis settlement system. This system relied on irrigation agriculture in areas with perennial springs. Magan owed its good position in the trade network to itscopper deposits. These deposits were located in the mountains, notably nearHili, where copper workshops and monumental tombs testifying to the area's affluence has been excavated.
Further to the west was an area calledDilmun, which in later periods corresponds to what is today known asBahrain. However, while Dilmun was mentioned in contemporary ED texts, no sites from this period have been excavated in this area. This may indicate that Dilmun may have referred to the coastal areas that served as a place of transit for the maritime trade network.[8][29]
The maritime trade in the Gulf extended as far east as theIndian subcontinent, where theIndus Valley civilisation flourished.[29] This trade intensified during the third millennium and reached its peak during theAkkadian andUr III periods.
The artifacts found in the royal tombs of theFirst Dynasty of Ur indicate that foreign trade was particularly active during this period, with many materials coming from foreign lands, such asCarnelian likely coming from theIndus orIran,Lapis Lazuli fromAfghanistan, silver fromTurkey, copper fromOman, and gold from several locations such asEgypt,Nubia,Turkey orIran.[37] Carnelian beads from the Indus were found inUr tombs dating to 2600–2450, in an example ofIndus-Mesopotamia relations.[38] In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique developed by theHarappans.[36] These materials were used in the manufacture of ornamental and ceremonial objects in the workshops of Ur.[37]
The First Dynasty of Ur had enormous wealth as shown by the lavishness of its tombs. This was probably due to the fact that Ur acted as the main harbour for trade withIndia, which put her in a strategic position to import and trade vast quantities of gold, carnelian or lapis lazuli.[39] In comparison, the burials of the kings ofKish were much less lavish.[39] High-prowed Sumerian ships may have traveled as far asMeluhha, thought to be theIndus region, for trade.[39]
There may have been a common or shared cultural identity among the Early Dynastic Sumerian city-states, despite their political fragmentation. This notion was expressed by the termskalam orki-engir.[23] Numerous texts and cylinder seals seem to indicate the existence of a league oramphictyony of Sumerian city-states. For example, clay tablets from Ur bearcylinder seal impressions with signs representing other cities. Similar impressions have also been found atJemdet Nasr, Uruk, and Susa.[40] Some impressions show exactly the same list of cities. It has been suggested that this represented a system in which specific cities were associated with delivering offerings to the major Sumerian temples, similar to thebala system of theUr III period.[41]
The texts fromShuruppak, dating to ED IIIa, also seem to confirm the existence of aki-engir league. Member cities of the alliance included Umma, Lagash, Uruk, Nippur, and Adab. Kish may have had a leading position, whereas Shuruppak may have been the administrative center. The members may have assembled in Nippur, but this is uncertain. This alliance seems to have focused on economic and military collaboration, as each city would dispatch soldiers to the league.[42] The primacy of Kish is illustrated by the fact that its rulerMesilim (c. 2500 BC) acted as arbitrator in a conflict between Lagash and Umma. However, it is not certain whether Kish held this elevated position during the entire period, as the situation seems to have been different during later conflicts between Lagash and Umma. Later, rulers from other cities would use the title 'King of Kish' to strengthen their hegemonic ambitions and possibly also because of the symbolic value of the city.[16][23]
The texts of this period also reveal the first traces of a wide-ranging diplomatic network.[43] For example, the peace treaty betweenEntemena ofLagash andLugal-kinishe-dudu ofUruk, recorded on aclay nail, represents the oldest known agreement of this kind.[23] Tablets from Girsu recordreciprocal gifts between the royal court and foreign states. Thus,Baranamtarra, wife of kingLugalanda of Lagash, exchanged gifts with her peers from Adab and even Dilmun.[44]
The first recorded war in history took place in Mesopotamia in around 2700 B.C. during the ED Period, between the forces ofSumer andElam. The Sumerians, under the command ofEnmebaragesi, theKing of Kish, defeated the Elamites and is recorded"carried away as spoils the weapons of Elam".
It is only for the later parts of the ED Period that information on political events becomes available, either as echoes in later writings or from contemporary sources. Writings from the end of the third millennium, including several Sumerian heroic narratives and the Sumerian King List, seem to echo events and military conflicts that may have occurred during the ED II period. For example, the reigns of legendary figures like kingGilgamesh of Uruk and his adversariesEnmebaragesi andAga of Kish possibly date to ED II.[45] These semi-legendary narratives seem to indicate an age dominated by two major powers: Uruk in Sumer and Kish in the Semitic country. However, the existence of the kings of this "heroic age" remains controversial.[23][46]
Somewhat reliable information on then-contemporary political events in Mesopotamia is available only for the ED IIIb period. These texts come mainly from Lagash and detail the recurring conflict with Umma over control of irrigated land.[47] The kings of Lagash are absent from the Sumerian King List, as are their rivals, the kings of Umma. This suggests that these states, while powerful in their own time, were later forgotten.
The royal inscriptions from Lagash also mention wars against other Lower Mesopotamian city-states, as well as against kingdoms farther away. Examples of the latter include Mari,Subartu, and Elam. These conflicts show that already in this stage in history there was a trend toward stronger states dominating larger territories. For example, kingEannatum of Lagash was able to defeat Mari and Elam around 2450 B.C.Enshakushanna of Uruk seized Kish and imprisoned its king Embi-Ishtar around 2350 B.C.Lugal-zage-si, king of Uruk and Umma, was able to seize most of Lower Mesopotamia around 2358 B.C. This phase of warring city-states came to an end with the emergence of the Akkadian Empire under the rule ofSargon of Akkad in 2334 B.C.(middle).[23][16]
The political history of Upper Mesopotamia and Syria is well known from the royal archives recovered at Ebla. Ebla, Mari, and Nagar were the dominant states for this period. The earliest texts indicate that Ebla paid tribute to Mari but was able to reduce it after it won a military victory.[48][49] Cities likeEmar on the Upper Euphrates andAbarsal (location unknown) werevassals of Ebla. Ebla exchanged gifts with Nagar, and a royal marriage was concluded between the daughter of a king of Ebla and the son of his counterpart at Nagar. The archives also contain letters from more distant kingdoms, such as Kish and possibly Hamazi, although it is also possible that there were cities with the same names closer to Ebla.[23] In many ways, the diplomatic interactions in the wider Ancient Near East during this period resemble those from the second millennium BC, which are particularly well known from theAmarna letters.[50]
In March 2020, archaeologists announced the discovery of a 5,000-year-old cultic area filled with more than 300 broken ceremonial ceramic cups, bowls, jars, animal bones and ritual processions dedicated toNingirsu at the site ofGirsu. One of the remains was a duck-shaped bronze figurine with eyes made from bark which is thought to be dedicated toNanshe.[51]
Each city was centered around a temple that was dedicated to a particularpatron deity. A city was governed by both/either a "lugal" (king) and/or an "ensi" (priest). It was understood that rulers were determined by the deity of the city and rule could be transferred from one city to another.[52]Hegemony from theNippur priesthood moved between competing dynasties of the Sumerian cities. Traditionally, these includedEridu,Bad-tibira,Larsa,Sippar,Shuruppak, Kish,Uruk,Ur,Adab, andAkshak. Other relevant cities from outside theTigris–Euphrates river system includedHamazi,Awan (in present-day Iran), and Mari (in present-day Syria but which is credited on theSKL as having "exercised kingship" during the ED II period).
Thorkild Jacobsen defined a "primitive democracy" with reference to Sumerian epics, myths, and historical records. He described a form of government determined by a majority of men who were free citizens. There was little specialisation and only a loose power structure. Kings such asGilgamesh of the first dynasty of Uruk did not yet hold anautocracy. Rather, they governed together with councils of elders and councils of younger men, who were likely free men bearing arms. Kings would consult the councils on all major decisions, including whether to go to war.[53][54] Jacobsen's definition of a democracy as a relationship between primitive monarchs and men of the noble classes has been questioned.[55] Jacobsen conceded that the available evidence could not distinguish a "Mesopotamian democracy" from a "primitive oligarchy".[56]
"Lugal" (Sumerian: 𒈗, aSumerogramligature of two signs: "𒃲" meaning "big" or "great" and "𒇽" meaning "man") (aSumerian language title translated intoEnglish as either "king" or "ruler") was one of three possible titles affixed to a ruler of a Sumerian city-state. The others were "EN" and "ensi".
The sign for "lugal" became the understoodlogograph for "king" in general. In the Sumerian language, "lugal" meant either an "owner" of property such as a boat or a field, or alternatively, the "head" of an entity or a family.[57] Thecuneiform sign for "lugal" serves as adeterminative in cuneiform texts, indicating that the following word would be the name of a king.
The definition of "lugal" during the ED Period of Mesopotamia is uncertain. The ruler of a city-state was usually referred to as "ensi". However, the ruler of a confederacy may have been referred to as "lugal". A lugal may have been "a young man of outstanding qualities from a rich landowning family".[citation needed]
Jacobsen made a distinction between a "lugal" as an elected war leader and "EN" as an elected governor concerned with internal issues. The functions of a lugal might include military defense, arbitration in border disputes, and ceremonial and ritualistic activities. At the death of the lugal, he was succeeded by his eldest son.[57][58] The earliest rulers with the title "lugal" include Enmebaragesi and Mesilim of Kish and Meskalamdug, Mesannepada, and several of Mesannepada's successors at Ur.
"Ensi" (Sumerian: 𒑐𒋼𒋛, meaning "Lord of the Plowland")[59] was a title associated with the ruler or prince of a city. The people understood that the ensi was a direct representative of the city's patron deity.[60] Initially, the term "ensi" may have been specifically associated with rulers ofLagash andUmma.[61] However, in Lagesh, "lugal" sometimes referred to the city's patron deity, "Ningirsu". In later periods, the title "ensi" presupposed subordinance to a "lugal".
"EN" (Sumerian: 𒂗; Sumerian cuneiform for "lord" or "priest") referred to a high priest or priestess of the city's patron deity.[62] It may also have been part of the title of the ruler of Uruk. "Ensi", "EN", and "Lugal" may have been local terms for the ruler of Lagash, Uruk, and Ur, respectively.
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The centers ofEridu andUruk, two of the earliest cities, developed large temple complexes built of mud-brick. Developed as small shrines in the earliest settlements, by the ED the temples became the most imposing structures in their cities, each dedicated to its own deity.
Each city had at least one major deity. Sumer was divided into about thirteen independent cities which were divided bycanals andboundary stones during the ED.[citation needed]
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Uruk, which was one of Sumer's largest cities, has been estimated to have had a population of 50,000 – 80,000 at its peak.[64] Given the other cities in Sumer and its large agricultural population, a rough estimate for Sumer's population might have been somewhere between 800,000 and 1,500,000. Theglobal human population at this time has been estimated to have been about 27,000,000.
The énsi Urukagina, of the city-state of Lagash, is best known for his reforms to combat corruption, and the Code of Urukagina is sometimes cited as the earliest known example of alegal code inrecorded history. The Code of Urukagina has also been widely hailed as the first recorded example of government reform, as it sought to achieve a higher level offreedom andequality.[65] Although the actual Code of Urukagina text has yet to be discovered, much of its content may be surmised from other references to it that have been found. In the Code of Urukagina, Urukagina exempted widows and orphans from taxes, compelled the city to pay funeral expenses (including the ritual food and drinklibations for the journey of the dead into the lower world), and decreed that the rich had to usesilver when purchasing from the poor. If the poor did not wish to sell, the powerful man (the rich man or the priest) could not force him to do so.[66] The Code of Urukagina limited the power of both thepriesthood andlarge property owners and established measures against usury, burdensome controls, hunger, theft, murder, and seizure of people's property and persons—as Urukagina stated: "The widow and the orphan were no longer at the mercy of the powerful man."
Despite these attempts to curb the excesses of the elite class, elite or royal women may have had even greater influence and prestige in Urukagina's reign than previously. Urukagina greatly expanded the royal "Household of Women" from about 50 persons to about 1,500 persons and renamed it to "Household of Goddess Bau". He gave it ownership of vast amounts of land confiscated from the former priesthood and placed it under the supervision of Urukagina's wife Shasha, or Shagshag.[67] During the second year of Urukagina's reign, his wife presided over the lavish funeral of his predecessor's queenBaranamtarra, who had been an important personage in her own right.
In addition to such changes, two of Urukagina's other surviving decrees, first published and translated by Samuel Kramer in 1964, have attracted controversy in recent decades:
No comparablelaws from Urukagina addressing penalties for adultery by men have survived. The discovery of these fragments has led some modern critics to assert that they provide "the first written evidence of the degradation of women."[69]
The following extracts are taken from the "Reform Document":
Imports to Ur came from theNear East and theOld World. Goods such asobsidian from Turkey,lapis lazuli fromBadakhshan inAfghanistan, beads fromBahrain, and seals inscribed with theIndus Valley script fromIndia have been found in Ur. Metals were imported. Sumerianstonemasons andjewelers usedgold,silver,lapis lazuli,[70]chlorite,ivory,iron, andcarnelian.Resin fromMozambique was found in the tomb ofQueen Puabi at Ur.
The cultural and trade connections of Ur are reflected by archaeological finds of imported items. In the ED III period, items from geographically distant places were found. These included gold, silver, lapis lazuli and carnelian. These types of items were not found in Mesopotamia.
Gold items were located in graves at the Royal Cemetery of Ur, royal treasuries and temples, indicating prestigious and religious functions. Gold items discovered included personal ornaments, weapons, tools, sheet-metalcylinder seals, fluted bowls, goblets, imitation cockle shells, and sculptures.
Silver was found as items such as belts, vessels, hair ornaments, pins, weapons, cockle shells, and sculptures. There are very few literary references or physical clues as to the sources of the silver.
Lapis lazuli has been found in items such as jewelry, plaques, gaming boards, lyres, ostrich-egg vessels, and also in parts of a larger sculpture known asRam in a Thicket. Some of the larger objects included a spouted cup, a dagger-hilt, and a whetstone. It indicates high status.
Chlorite stone artifacts from the ED are commonly found. they include disc beads, ornaments, and stone vases. The vases rarely exceed 25 cm in height. They often have human and animal motifs and semiprecious stone inlays. They may have carried precious oils.
Early Dynastic stone sculptures have mainly been recovered from excavated temples. They can be separated into two groups: three-dimensional prayer statues and perforatedbas-reliefs. The so-calledTell Asmar Hoard is a well-known example of Early Dynastic sculpture. It was recovered in a temple and consists of standing figures with their hands folded in prayer or holding a goblet for alibation ritual. Other statues feature seated figures also in devotional postures. Male figures wear a plain or fringed dress, orkaunakes.[20][8] The statues usually represent notables or rulers. They served asex-votos and were placed in temples to pray on behalf of the spender. The Sumerian style clearly influenced neighbouring regions, as similar statues have been recovered from sites in Upper Mesopotamia, including Assur, Tell Chuera, and Mari. However, some statues showed greater originality and had less stylistic characteristics in common with Sumerian sculpture.[29][8][20]
Bas-reliefs created from perforated stone slabs are another hallmark of Early Dynastic sculpture. They also served a votive purpose, but their exact function is unknown.[29][8] Examples include the votive relief of kingUr-Nanshe of Lagash and his family found at Girsu and that of Dudu, a priest ofNingirsu. The latter showed mythological creatures such as a lion-headed eagle.[20] TheStele of the Vultures, created byEannatum of Lagash, is remarkable in that it represents different scenes that together tell the narrative of the victory of Lagash over its rival Umma.[72] Reliefs like these have been found in Lower Mesopotamia and the Diyala region but not in Upper Mesopotamia or Syria.
![Bas-relief of a banquet and boating scene, 3000-2334 BCE, Kish (Sumer).[73]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aP1150886_Louvre_bas-relief_sc%25C3%25A8nes_banquet_AO31015_rwk.jpg)
Sumerianmetallurgy andgoldsmithing were highly developed.[8][29] This is all the more remarkable for a region where metals had to be imported. Known metals included gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead, electrum, and tin. The use of binary, tertiary, and quaternaryalloys was already present during the Uruk period. Sumerians usedbronze, although the scarcity of tin meant that they usedarsenic instead. Metalworking techniques includedlost-wax casting,plating,filigree, andgranulation.
Numerous metal objects have been excavated from temples and graves, including dishes, weapons, jewelry, statuettes, foundation nails, and various other objects of worship. The most remarkable gold objects come from theRoyal Cemetery at Ur, includingmusical instruments and the complete inventory ofPuabi’s tomb. Metal vases have also been excavated at other sites in Lower Mesopotamia, including theVase of Entemena at Lagash.[20]
Cylinder seals were used to authenticate documents like sales and to control access by sealing a lump of clay on doors of storage rooms. The use of cylinder seals increased significantly during the ED Period, suggesting an expansion and increased the complexity of administrative activities.
During the preceding Uruk period, a wide variety of scenes were engraved on cylinder seals. This variety disappeared at the start of the third millennium, to be replaced by an almost exclusive focus on mythological and cultural scenes in Lower Mesopotamia and the Diyala region.[8][20] During the ED I period, seal designs included geometric motifs and stylized pictograms. Later on, combat scenes between real and mythological animals became the dominant theme, together with scenes of heroes fighting animals. Their exact meaning is unclear. Common mythological creatures include anthropomorphic bulls and scorpion-men. Real creatures include lions and eagles. Some anthropomorphic creatures are probably deities, as they wear a horned tiara, which was asymbol of divinity.
Scenes with cultic themes, including banquet scenes, became common during ED II. Another common ED III theme was the so-called god-boat, but its meaning is unclear. During the ED III period, ownership of seals was started to be registered. Glyptic development in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria was strongly influenced by Sumerian art.[8]
Examples ofinlay have been found at several sites and used materials such asnacre (mother of pearl), white and colouredlimestone, lapis lazuli, andmarble.Bitumen was used to attach the inlay in wooden frames, but these have not survived in the archaeological record.[20][29] The inlay-panels usually showed mythological or historical scenes. Likebas-reliefs, these panels allow the reconstruction of early forms of narrative art. However, this type of work seems to have been abandoned in subsequent periods.
The best preserved inlaid object is theStandard of Ur found in one of theroyal tombs of this city. It represents two principal scenes on its two sides: a battle and a banquet that probably follows a military victory.[20][29] The "dairy frieze" found atTell al-'Ubaid represents, as its name suggests, dairy activities (milking cows, cowsheds, preparing dairy products). It is our source of the most information on this practice in ancient Mesopotamia[74]
Similar mosaic elements were discovered at Mari, where a mother-of-pearl engraver's workshop was identified, and at Ebla where marble fragments were found from a 3-meter-high panel decorating a room of the royal palace.[29] The scenes of the two sites have strong similarities in their style and themes. In Mari the scenes are military (a parade of prisoners) or religious (a ram's sacrifice). In Ebla, they show a military triumph and mythological animals.
TheLyres of Ur (or Harps of Ur) are considered to be the world's oldest survivingstringed instruments. In 1929, archaeologists led byLeonard Woolley discovered the instruments when excavating theRoyal Cemetery of Ur between from 1922 and 1934. They discovered pieces of threelyres and oneharp inUr located in what wasAncient Mesopotamia and now isIraq.[75][76] They are over 4,500 years old[77] from ancient Mesopotamia during the ED III.[78] The decorations on the lyres are fine examples of the courtArt of Mesopotamia of the period.[79]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)A team of engineers at the University of Liverpool has helped reproduce an ancient Iraqi harp - the Lyre of Ur.
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