TheEarly Cholas were aTamil kingdom of theChola dynasty - pre and postSangam period (600 BCE–300 CE). It was one of the three main kingdoms ofTamilakam. Their early capitals wereUrayur orTiruchirapalli andKaveripattinam. Along with thePandyas and theCheras, theChola history goes back to the period when written records were scarce.^[1]

AncientTamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings calledVendhar and several chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denominationVel orVelir.^[2] Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs calledkizhar ormannar.^[3] The Tamil area had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kings and chiefs were always in conflict with each other mostly over property. The royal courts were mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for distribution of resources.^[4]

The names of the three dynasties,Cholas,Pandyas, andCheras, are mentioned in thePillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject toAshoka, were on friendly terms with him.^[5][6] The king ofKalinga,Kharavela, who ruled around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famousHathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.^[7]

Another source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period.Karikala Chola was the most famous early Chola. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the TamilSangam literature.^[8] There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei).Periplus is a work by an anonymousAlexandrian merchant, written in the time ofDomitian (81–96 CE) and contains precious information of the Chola country. Writing half a century later, the geographerPtolemy has more to tell us about the Chola country, its port and its inland cities.^[9]

Mahavamsa, aBuddhist text, also recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants ofCeylon and the Tamil immigrants from Chola Country.

Chronicles such as theYalpana Vaipava Malai and stone inscriptions like Konesar Kalvettu recount thatKulakkottan, an early Chola king and descendant ofManu Needhi Cholan, was the restorer of the ruinedKoneswaram temple and tank atTrincomalee in 438 CE, theMunneswaram temple of the west coast, and as the royal who settled ancient People.^[10][11]

The inscriptions of theMedieval Cholas are replete with history about the Early Chola kings. The Cholas were looked upon as descended from the sun. These historic incidents speak of the Chola kingKantaman, supposed contemporary of the sageAgastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence. There is also the story of the kingManu who sentenced his son to death for having accidentally killed a calf. Mahavamasa portrays KingEllaalan^[14] who was defeated byDuttha Gamini (c. 3rd century BCE) as the just king who '..had a bell with a rope attached at the head of his bed, so that all who sought redress might ring it..'. KingSibi who rescued a dove from a hawk by giving his own flesh to the hungry hawk was also part of the early Chola history.^{[citation needed]}

These historic incidents received enormous emphasis in the later Chola period in the long mythical genealogies incorporated into the copper-plate charters of the 10th and 11th centuries. The earliest version of this is found in theAnbil Plates which gives fifteen names before Vijayalaya Cholan including the historical ones of Karikala, Perunarkilli and Kocengannan. The Thiruvalangadu Plate swells this list to forty-four, and the Kanyakumari Plate runs up to fifty-two. There are other lists gathered from literary works such asKalingathuparani. No two of these lists agree, although some names and details are common to all.^{[citation needed]}

The Chola kings namely Dharmavarcholan and Killivalavan developed the shrine of Srirangam into big temple seen now. They laid the basic foundations and primary Buildings. Killi, Thiru Mangai, Kulasekaran, Rajamahendra and Thiru Vikrama were named in the Sri Ranganathar temple in Tiruchchirappalli as being ancestors of Killivallavan. Dharmavarma was another ancestor of Killivallavan, possibly his father. It is located in the middle of the Trichy town.^{[15][16][17][18]}

The earliest Chola kings of whom we have tangible evidence are those mentioned in the Sangam literature, written in the period 600 BCE–300 CE.^[19][20] Unfortunately, it has not been possible to piece together an internal chronology of the Sangam works. Due to this, we know of several rulers, but not their chronology. All three kings have been portrayed as fighting the war or involved in feeding both the armies at that legendary war.

Karikala Chola (c. 90 BCE) stands pre-eminent amongst all those mentioned inPattinappaalai. Karikala's father wasIlamcetcenni, a brave king and a hard fighter. 'Karikala' means 'elephant feller' or 'charred leg', which is assumed to be a reference to an accident by fire that befell the prince early in his life.Pattinappaalai describes this accident and the enterprising way in which the prince escaped and established himself in the Chola throne.Pattinappalai is a long poem on the then Chola capitalKaveripattinam. This work also describes the numerous battles Karikala fought against the other two Tamil kings in one of which the Chera king was disgraced (received a wound on his back) and committed suicide. Karikala thus broke the confederacy that was formed against him and established hegemony over Pandyas and Cheras.

In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in theCilappatikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of the 11th and 12th centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks,Grand Anicut, of theKaveri River with the aid of his feudatories. These legends however are conspicuous by their absence in the works of Sangam.

The poet Kovur Kilar mentions a protracted civil war between two Chola chieftainsNalankilli andNedunkilli. Nedunkilli shut himself in a fort in Avur, which was being besieged by Mavalattan, Nalankilli's younger brother. The poet chided Nedunkilli to come out and fight like a man instead of causing untold misery to the people of the city.

In another poem, the poet begs both the princes to give up the civil war as whoever wins, the loser will be a Chola.

Kalavali by Poygayar mentions the Chola King Kocengannan and his battle with the Chera king Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera was taken prisoner and Poygayar, who was a friend of the Chera, sang a poem praising the Chola King Kochchenganan in 40 stanzas. The Chola king, pleased with the work, released the Chera. Kalavali describes the battle fought at Kalumalam, near the Chera capital.Kocengannan is one of the 63nayanars.^{[citation needed]}

Kocengannan became the subject of many instances in later times and is portrayed as a piousSiva devotee who built many fine temples for Siva along the banks of the riverKaveri.^{[citation needed]}

Sangam literature gives an unusually complete and true picture of the social and economic conditions during the early Chola period.^{[citation needed]}

The land of the Cholas was fertile and there was ample food. Sangam poems say that in the Chola country watered by the river Kaveri, in a space in which an elephant could lie, one can produce enough grain to feed seven.^{[citation needed]}

Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government. Disputed succession and civil war was not uncommon. The sphere of state activity was limited. In a society steeped in respect for custom, even the most perverse dictator could not have done much harm.^{[citation needed]}

The Chola monarchs were approachable by subjects and justice was meted out directly by the king in most occasions. This is in marked contrast to the magnificent empires of the later Cholas where the Emperor was kept much away from contact with the lay people. The kings often took the field in person in battles and if the kings was killed or wounded in battle, his army immediately gave up the fight and surrendered.^{[citation needed]}

The trade that flourished between the Chola country and the ancientRoman Empire is given in much detail byPeriplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 75 CE).[21]

• Chola Empire
• Chola Dynasty
• Sangam literature

• Chola dynasty
• History of Tiruchirappalli

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