Dzungar Khanate | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1634–1758 | |||||||||||||
![The Dzungar Khanate in the year 1717, after the conquest of Tibet[1]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMap_of_the_Dzungar_Khanate%2c_in_1717.png) The Dzungar Khanate in the year 1717, after the conquest of Tibet[1] | |||||||||||||
| Status | Nomadic empire | ||||||||||||
| Capital | Ghulja[2] | ||||||||||||
| Common languages | Oirat,Chagatai[3] | ||||||||||||
| Religion | Tibetan Buddhism | ||||||||||||
| Demonym | Dzungar | ||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||
| Khan orKhong Tayiji | |||||||||||||
• 1632–1653 | Erdeni Batur (first) | ||||||||||||
• 1653–1671 | Sengge | ||||||||||||
• 1671–1697 | Galdan Boshugtu Khan | ||||||||||||
• 1697–1727 | Tsewang Rabtan Khan | ||||||||||||
• 1727–1745 | Galdan Tseren Khan | ||||||||||||
• 1745–1750 | Tsewang Dorji Namjal | ||||||||||||
• circa. 1750–1753 | Lama Dorji | ||||||||||||
• 1753–1755 | Dawachi (last khong tayiji) | ||||||||||||
| Legislature |
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| Historical era | Early modern period | ||||||||||||
• Established | 1634 1634 | ||||||||||||
| 1635 | |||||||||||||
• Galdan's succession war | 1671 | ||||||||||||
| 1680–1681 | |||||||||||||
• Invasion of Khalkas,First Dzungar—Qing War | 1688–1690 | ||||||||||||
| 1715–1720 | |||||||||||||
| 1731–1739 | |||||||||||||
• Qing army occupation of Dzungaria andgenocide | 1758 1758 | ||||||||||||
| Area | |||||||||||||
• Total | 4.56 km2 (1.76 sq mi) | ||||||||||||
| 1650[4] | 3,600,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||||
• [5] | 600,000−1,200,000 | ||||||||||||
| Currency | pūl (a red copper coin) | ||||||||||||
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| Today part of | |||||||||||||
| Dzungar Khanate | |||||||
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| Chinese name | |||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 準噶爾汗國 | ||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 准噶尔汗国 | ||||||
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| Tibetan name | |||||||
| Tibetan | ཛེ་གུན་གར།། | ||||||
| Mongolian name | |||||||
| Mongolian Cyrillic | Зүүнгарын Хаант Улс | ||||||
| Mongolian script | ᠵᠡᠭᠦᠨ ᠭᠠᠷ ᠤᠨ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨᠲᠣ ᠣᠯᠣᠰ | ||||||
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| Uyghur name | |||||||
| Uyghur | جوڭغار Jongghar | ||||||
TheDzungar Khanate (Mongolian:ᠵᠡᠭᠦᠨᠭᠠᠷᠣᠯᠣᠰЗүүнгар Улс), also known as theZunghar Khanate orJunggar Khanate (sometimes known asWestern Mongolia),[6] was anomadickhanate ofOirat Mongol origin. At its greatest extent, it covered an area from southernSiberia in the north to present-dayKyrgyzstan in the south, and from present-day west of Mongolia and theGreat Wall of China in the east to present-dayKazakhstan in the west. The core of the Dzungar Khanate is today part of northernXinjiang, also calledDzungaria.
About 1620, the western Mongols, known as theOirats, united in theJunggar Basin inDzungaria. In 1678,Galdan received from theDalai Lama the title ofBoshogtuKhan, making theDzungars the leading tribe within theOirats. The Dzungar rulers used the title ofKhong Tayiji, which translates into English as "crown prince".[7] Between 1680 and 1688, the Dzungars conquered theTarim Basin, which is now southernXinjiang, and defeated theKhalkha Mongols to the east. In 1696, Galdan was defeated by theQing dynasty and lostOuter Mongolia. In 1717, the Dzungars conqueredTibet, but were driven out in 1720 by the Qing. From 1755 to 1758, Qing China took advantage of a Dzungar civil war toconquer Dzungaria andkilled 70–80% of the Dzungar population.[8] The destruction of the Dzungars led to theQing conquest of Mongolia,Tibet, and the creation ofXinjiang as a political administrative unit.
"Dzungar" is a compound of theMongolian wordjegün (züün), meaning "left" or "east" andγar meaning "hand" or "wing".[9] The region ofDzungaria derives its name from this confederation. Although the Dzungars were located west of theKhalkas, the derivation of their name has been attributed to the fact that they represented the left wing of theOirats. In the early 17th century, the head of the Oirat confederation was the leader of the Khoshut, Gushi Khan. When Gushi Khan decided to invade Tibet to replace the localTsangpa khan in favor of rule by theGelug, the Oirat army was organized into left and right wings. The right wing, consisting of Khoshuts and Torguts, remained in Tibet while the Choros and Khoid of the Left wing retreated north into the Tarim basin. Since then, the powerful empire of the Choros became known as the Left Wing, i.e., Zuungar.
The region was separately described in contemporary European sources as theKingdom of the Eleuths, from an infelicitous transcription of the name "Oirats" by Frenchmissionaries.[10] This was sometimes vaguely extended to cover wide areas ofCentral Asia, includingAfghanistan.[11]
The Oirats were originally from the area ofTuva during the early 13th century. Their leader,Qutuqa Beki, submitted toGenghis Khan in 1208, and his house intermarried with all four branches of the Genghisid line. During theToluid Civil War, theFour Oirat (Choros,Torghut,Dörbet, andKhoid) sided withAriq Böke and therefore never acceptedKublaid rule. After theYuan dynasty's collapse, the Oirats supported the Ariq BökidJorightu Khan Yesüder in seizing theNorthern Yuan throne. The Oirats held sway over the Northern Yuan khans until the death ofEsen Taishi in 1455, after which they migrated west due to Khalkha Mongol aggression.[12] In 1486, the Oirats became embroiled in a succession dispute, which gaveDayan Khan the opportunity to attack them. In the latter half of the 16th century, the Oirats lost more territory to theTumed.[13]
However, the Oirats began to resist Northern Yuan rule. In which Eselvei Khya of the Khoid battled the armies ofOrdos Mongols and theChahars.[14] Later, Kharkhul rebelled against the Khalkhas and repelled them.[15] The Oirats soon started an independence war against the Khalkhas and the Kazakhs. They defeated a Khalkha–Kazakh coalition and raided deep intoSighnaq in 1604.[16] In 1608, the Oirats defeated another Kazakh force and repelled an invading Khalkha army.[17] From 1609–1616, the Oirats devastated the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz, subjugating them in the process.[18]
In 1620, the leaders of the Choros and Torghut Oirats,Khara Khula and Mergen Temene, attackedUbashi Khong Tayiji, and the firstAltan Khan of the Khalkha. They were defeated, and Khara Khula lost his wife and children to the enemy.[19] An all-out war between Ubashi Khong Tayiji and the Oirats lasted until 1623 when Ubashi Khong Tayiji was killed, and the Oirats declared independence at theBattle of Irtysh River.[20]
In 1625, a conflict erupted between theKhoshut chief Chokhur and his uterine brother Baibaghas over inheritance issues. Baibaghas was killed in the fight. However, his younger brothersGüshi Khan and Kondolon Ubashi took up the fight and pursued Chöükür from theIshim River to theTobol River, attacking and killing his tribal followers in 1630. The infighting among the Oirats caused the Torghut chiefKho Orluk to migrate westwards until they came into conflict with theNogai Horde, which they destroyed. The Torghuts founded theKalmyk Khanate but still stayed in contact with the Oirats in the east. Every time a great assembly was called, they sent representatives to attend.[21]
In 1632, theGelug sect inQinghai was being repressed by the KhalkhaChoghtu Khong Tayiji, so they invited Güshi Khan to come and deal with him. In 1636, Güshi led 10,000 Oirats in an invasion of Qinghai, which resulted in thedefeat of a 30,000-strong enemy army and the death of Choghtu in 1637. He then entered Central Tibet, where he received from the5th Dalai Lama the title of the Dharma King Who Upholds the Religion. He then claimed the title ofKhan, the first non-Genghisid Mongol to do so, and summoned the Oirats to completely conquer Tibet, creating theKhoshut Khanate. Among those involved was Kharkhul's son,Erdeni Batur, who was granted the title of Khong Tayiji, married the khan's daughter Amin Dara, and was sent back to establish theDzungar Khanate on the upperEmil River south of theTarbagatai Mountains.[22]
The Dzungars invaded theKazakh Khanate in 1635, capturing their khan,Jangir in the process.[23] Erdeni Batur later continued his invasions in 1640,[24] 1643[25] and 1646, further devastating the Kazakh Khanate and subjugating their people.[26] He also establishedGhulja as the capital city, naming it Khobak Sari in which he built monastaries,[27] and buildings to populate it.[28] He also established relations with theTsardom of Russia, granting them rights to salt mines and trade. In which allowed the Russians to settle and create outposts, as well as a prosperous economy between the two nations.[22] His rule ended in 1653, at his death in the same year. Before this he had also requested the Khoshut Khanate to aid him in their war against the Kazakhs, which they sent Galdamba to defeat Jangir at Battle of Turkistan[29] and Bukharans atBattle of the Chu and Talas river.[30] Which consolidated the border of the Dzungar Khanate in the west fromTalas River toAyagöz river.[31]
_and_his_wife%2c_Huang_Qing_Zhigong_Tu%2c_1769.jpg)
In 1653,Sengge succeeded his father Batur, but he faced dissent from his half-brothers. With the support ofOchirtu Khan of the Khoshut, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667, he capturedErinchin Lobsang Tayiji, the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself was assassinated by his half-brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in acoup in 1670.[33]
Sengge's younger brotherGaldan Boshugtu Khan had been residing in Tibet at the time. Upon his birth in 1644, he was recognized as the reincarnation of a Tibetanlama who had died the previous year. In 1656, he left for Tibet, where he received education fromLobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, 4th Panchen Lama and the 5th Dalai Lama. Upon learning of his brother's death, he immediately returned from Tibet and took revenge on Chechen. Allied with Ochirtu Sechen of the Khoshut, Galdan defeated Chechen and drove Zotov out of Dzungaria. In 1671 The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. Sengge's two sons, Sonom Rabdan andTsewang Rabtan, revolted against Galdan, but they were defeated. Although already marriedAnu-Dara, granddaughter of Ochirtu, he came into conflict with his grandfather-in-law. Fearing Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Choqur Ubashi, who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted in Galdan's domination of the Oirats. In the next year, the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshoghtu (or Boshughtu) Khan to him.[34]
_from_Ili_and_other_regions%2c_with_his_wife.jpg)
From the late 16th century onward, theYarkent Khanate fell under the influence of theKhojas. The Khojas wereNaqshbandiSufis who claimed descent from the prophetMuhammad or from theRashidun caliphs. By the reign ofSultan Said Khan in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had a strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other, and they passed down their mutual hatred to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of the khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and the Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son, who ruled for only a brief period beforeIsmail Khan was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between the two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader,Afaq Khoja. Afaq fled toTibet, where the5th Dalai Lama aided him in enlisting the help ofGaldan Boshugtu Khan.[36]
In 1680, Galdan led 120,000Dzungars into the Yarkent Khanate. They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs andHami andTurpan, which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son, Babak Sultan, died in the resistance against the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated the Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installedAbd ar-Rashid Khan II, son of Babak, as puppet khan.[37]
In 1681, the invasion by Galdan Boshugtu Khan started with Galdan's forces' attacking Jetisu and South Kazakhstan, where Galdan failed to takeSayram in 1681 and 1683.[39] In 1684, the Dzungars seized Sayram, Tashkent, and more.[40] After that Galdan subjugated the Black Kyrgyz and ravaged theFergana Valley.[41] The Dzungars established dominion over theBaraba Tatars and extracted yasaq (tribute) from them. Converting toOrthodox Christianity and becoming Russian subjects was a tactic by the Baraba to find an excuse not to pay yasaq to the Dzungars.[42] He also recaptured the region of Jetisu, which were lost to the Kazakhs during the Succession dispute in 1670.[43]
The Oirats had established peace with theKhalkha Mongols sinceLigdan Khan died in 1634, and the Khalkhas were preoccupied with the rise of theQing dynasty. However, when the Jasaghtu Khan Shira lost part of his subjects to theTüsheet Khan Chikhundorj, Galdan moved hisorda near theAltai Mountains to prepare an attack. Chikhundorj attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against Chikhundorj, but they were eventually defeated. Dorji-jav was killed in battle. Chikhundorj then murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasaghtu Khan, who was on the way to Galdan. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan established friendly relations with the Russians, who were already at war with Chikhundorj over territories nearLake Baikal. Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar troops into Khalkha Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. TheSiberian Cossacks, meanwhile, attacked and defeated a Khalkha army of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars nearErdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his brotherJebtsundamba KhutuktuZanabazar fled across theGobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and submitted to theKangxi Emperor. Leading to The FirstDzungar-Qing War.[27]
Late in the summer of 1690, Galdan crossed theKherlen River with a force of 20,000 and engaged aQing army atBattle of Ulan Butung 350 kilometers north ofBeijing near the western headwaters of theLiao River. Galdan was forced to retreat and escaped destruction because the Qing army did not have the supplies or ability to pursue him. In 1696, theKangxi Emperor led 100,000 troops intoMongolia. Galdan fled from the Kherlen only to be caught by another Qing army attacking from the west. He was defeated in the ensuingBattle of Jao Modo near the upperTuul River. Galdan's wife,Anu, was killed, and the Qing army captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with a small handful of followers. In 1697, he died in the Altai Mountains nearKhovd on 4 April. Back in Dzungaria, his nephewTsewang Rabtan, who had revolted in 1689, was already in control as of 1691.[27]
Galdan installedAbd ar-Rashid Khan II, son of Babak, as puppet khan in theYarkent Khanate. The new khan forcedAfaq Khoja to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from theQing dynasty,Khanate of Bukhara, and theMughal Empire in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad successfully attacked the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately, Afaq Khoja reappeared and overthrew Muhammad in a revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son, Yahiya Khoja, was enthroned, but his reign was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696,Akbash Khan was placed on the throne, but thebegs of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with theKyrgyz to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted the Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatai ruler, Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending the rule of Chagatai khans forever. Abdullah Tarkhan Beg ofHami also rebelled in 1696 and defected to theQing dynasty. In 1698, Qing troops were stationed in Hami.[44]
In 1698, Galdan's successor Tsewang Rabtan reached Tengiz lake and Turkistan, and the Dzungarscontrolled Jetisu and Tashkent until 1745.[45] The Dzungars' war on the Kazakhs pushed them into seeking aid from Russia.[46] They furtherinvaded the Kazahs in 1708, but were soon repelled by the Kazakhs in 1711–1712.[47][48] In 1713–1714, the Dzungars suffered major defeats at the hands of the Kazakhs.[47] However, they managed to counterattack with Tsewang Rabtan sending his two sons, Lobsangsür andGaldan Tseren, recovering their lost territories.[49]
Having achieved short-term foreign policy stability on the southern and eastern borders of Dzungaria, Tsavan-Rabdan sent his troops to the Kazakh steppes in 1716. The Oirat army under the command of Tseren Dondook defeated the Kazakh militia and captured a significant number of prisoners.[50] In the same year, Kazakh troops attacked the nomads of the Choros on the Ili River, capturing Lieutenant Markel Trubnikov.[51]
The Kazakhs fought against the Dzungar Khanate in 1723–1730, following its "Great Disaster" invasion of Kazakh territory, which they ravaged much of the Kazakh steppe and haddefeated Kazakh troops. Under the leadership ofAbul Khair Khan, the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at theBulanty River in 1726 and at theBattle of Añyraqai in 1729.[52]
Tsewang Rabtan's brother Tseren Dondup invaded theKhoshut Khanate in 1717, deposedYeshe Gyatso, killedLha-bzang Khan, and lootedLhasa. TheKangxi Emperor retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars in theBattle of the Salween River, not far from Lhasa.[53] Asecond and larger expedition sent by Kangxi expelled the Dzungars fromTibet in 1720. They broughtKälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721.[54] The people ofTurpan and Pichan took advantage of the situation to rebel under a local chief,Amin Khoja, and defected to the Qing dynasty.[55]
Tsewang Rabtan died suddenly in 1727 and was succeeded by his son Galdan Tsere, by killing his half-brother Lobsangsür. He continued the war against the Kazakhs and the Khalkha Mongols. In retaliation against attacks against his Khalkha subjects, theYongzheng Emperor of theQing dynasty sent an invasion force of 10,000, which the Dzungars defeated near theKhoton Lake. The next year, however, the Dzungars suffered a defeat against the Khalkhas nearErdene Zuu Monastery. In 1731, the Dzungars attacked Turpan, which had previously defected to the Qing dynasty. Amin Khoja led the people of Turpan in a retreat intoGansu, where they settled inGuazhou. In 1739, Galdan Tseren agreed to the boundary between Khalkha and Dzungar territory.[56]
_delegation_to_the_camp_of_the_Chinese_Qianlong_Emperor_in_the_Chengde_Mountain_Resort_in_1754%2c_in_%25E8%2590%25AC%25E6%25A8%25B9%25E5%259C%2592%25E8%25B3%259C%25E5%25AE%25B4%25E5%259C%2596_1755.jpg)
Galdan Tseren died in 1745, triggering widespread rebellion in the Tarim Basin and starting a succession dispute among his sons. In 1749, Galden Tseren's sonLama Dorji seized the throne from his younger brother,Tsewang Dorji Namjal. He was overthrown by his cousinDawachi and theKhoid nobleAmursana, but they too fought over control of the khanate.
As a result of their dispute, in 1753, three of Dawachi's relatives, ruling the Dörbet andBayad, defected to the Qing and migrated into Khalkha territory. The next year, Amursana also defected. In 1754, Yusuf, the ruler ofKashgar, rebelled and forcefully converted the Dzungars living there to Islam. His older brother, Jahan Khoja ofYarkand, also rebelled but was captured by the Dzungars due to the treachery of Ayyub Khoja ofAksu. Jahan's son Sadiq gathered 7,000 men inKhotan and attacked Aksu in retaliation.
In the spring of 1755, theQianlong Emperor sent an army of 50,000 against Dawachi. He presented his invasion as benevolent, and aimed at ending the sufferings of the Dzungars, while ascribing their misery to themselves:[57]
"Alas, you Dzungars, you are of the same ilk as the Mongols, aren’t you? Why did you separate from them? (...) People stood there with their mouths open because of the misery. I was anxious that your misery came to a standstill. And I hope that it will not — with my help — last till the next morning (...) If Heaven wants to strengthen somebody, people cannot injure him, even if they want his downfall. ...You want to honour the Yellow Doctrine and pray to Buddha and the Bodhisattvas. But in your hearts, you are like man-eatingRakshas. Therefore you were unable to escape from your self incurred retribution with your lives when your crimes were at the lowest [moral level] and your wickedness reached a zenith"
The Qing army met almost no resistance and destroyed the Dzungar Khanate within the span of 100 days.[59] The Chinese army, supplemented on the way by Muslim and renegade Dzungar troops, surprisedDawachi at the site of Borotola in June 1755, about 300li fromIli.[60] Dawachi had about 10,000 troops and retreated to Mount Keteng, about 80li from Ili, while sending messengers for reinforcements, but the messengers were intercepted by the Chinese. The Qing army was able to surprise and capture Dawachi's army at the camp, and a charge was led by the Dzungar renegadeAyusi and 20 of his men, who stormed the camp and where able to conduct about 8,000 prisoners to the Chinese camp (an event depicted in the Qing painting "Storming of the Camp at Gädän-Ola").[60] Only 2,000 soldiers escaped with Dawachi at their head.[60] Dawachi fled into the mountains north of Aksu but was captured by the Uyghur leaderKhojis, beg ofUchturpan, at the request of the Chinese, and delivered to the Qing.[61]
Dawachi surrendered to the Qing general Zhaohui.[61] The scene was immortalized in the painting "Zhaohui receives the surrender of Dawachi at Ili" by the Jesuit court painterIgnatius Sichelbart. Dawachi was taken to Beijing, but was pardoned by the Emperor. Together with his captorKhojis, he was made a Prince, and "awarded banner privileges".[60]
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After defeating the Dzungar Khanate, the Qing planned to install khans for each of the four Oirat tribes, butAmursana, who had been an ally of the Qing against Dawachi, wanted to rule over all the Oirats. Instead, theQianlong Emperor made him only khan of theKhoid.
In the summer, Amursana, along with Mongol leaderChingünjav, led a revolt against the Qing. Amursana was defeated in theBattle of Oroi-Jalatu (1756), in which Chinese general Zhao Hui attacked the Dzungars at night in presentWusu, Xinjiang. Unable to defeat the Qing, Amursana fled north to seek refuge with theRussians and died of smallpox in Russian lands in September 1757. In the spring of 1762, his frozen body was brought toKyakhta for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment.[63][64][65]
Later encounters took place with the remaining Dzungar forces, in theBattle of Khorgos, in which the partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Again in 1758, at theBattle of Khurungui, General Zhao Hui ambushed and defeated the Dzungarian forces on Mount Khurungui, nearAlmaty,Kazakhstan.[66]
!["The Victory of Khorgos". The partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret.[62]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aThe_Victory_of_Khorgos1.jpg)
When Amursana rebelled against theQing dynasty, theAq Taghliq (i.e., 'White Mountaineers', also known asĀfāqīs) Khojas Burhanuddin and Jahan rebelled inYarkand. Their rule was not popular, and the people greatly disliked them for appropriating anything they needed, from clothing to livestock. In February 1758, the Qing sent Yaerhashan and Zhao Hui with 10,000 troops against the Aq Taghliq regime. Zhao Hui was besieged by enemy forces at Yarkand until January 1759, but otherwise the Qing army did not encounter any difficulties on campaign. TheKhoja brothers fled toBadakhshan, where they were captured by the ruler Sultan Shah, who executed them and handed Jahan's head to the Qing. The Tarim Basin was pacified in 1759.[67]
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According to the Qing scholarWei Yuan (1794–1857), the Dzungar population before the Qing conquest was around 600,000 in 200,000 households. Wei Yuan wrote that about 40 percent of the Dzungar households were killed bysmallpox, 20 percent fled to Russia orKazakh tribes, and 30 percent were killed by Manchu bannermen. For several thousands ofli, there were no gers except for those who had surrendered.[68][69][70] Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80 percent of the 600,000 or more Dzungars were destroyed by disease and attack[71] which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people".[72]
It's argued by the historianPeter Perdue that the destruction of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by theQianlong Emperor, which lasted for two years.[69] His commanders were reluctant to carry out his orders, which he repeated several times using the termjiao (extermination) over and over again. The commanders Hadaha and Agui were punished for only occupying Dzungar lands but letting the people escape. The generals Jaohui and Shuhede were punished for not showing sufficient zeal in exterminating rebels. Qianlong explicitly ordered the Khalkha Mongols to "take the young and strong and massacre them".[73] The elderly, children, and women were spared, but they could not preserve their former names or titles.[73] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, states that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".[74]
Widespread anti-Dzungar opinion by former Dzungar subjects contributed to their genocide. The MuslimKazakhs and former people of theYarkent Khanate in theTarim Basin (now calledUyghurs), were treated poorly by their Buddhist Dzungar rulers, who used them as slave labor; in consequence, they participated in the Qing invasion and attacked the Dzungars. Uyghur leaders likeKhoja Emin orKhojis were granted titles within the Qing nobility,[75][76][77] and acted as intermediaries with Muslims from the Tarim Basin. They told the Muslims that the Qing only wanted to kill Oirats and that they would leave the Muslims alone. They also convinced the Muslims to aid the Qing in killing Oirats.[78]
After the destruction of the Dzungar Oirat people, theQing dynasty sponsored the settlement of millions of Han, Hui, Xibe, Daur, Solon, Turkic Oasis people (Uyghurs), and Manchus in Dzungaria since the land had been emptied.[80] Stanley W. Toops notes that modern Xinjiang's demographic situation still reflects the settlement initiative of the Qing dynasty. One third of Xinjiang's total population consisted of Han, Hui, and Kazakhs in the north, while around two-thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.[81][82][83] Some cities in northern Xinjiang, such as Ürümqi and Yining, were essentially made by the Qing settlement policy.[84]
The elimination of the Buddhist Dzungars led to the rise of Islam and its Muslim Begs as the predominant moral and political authority in Xinjiang. Many MuslimTaranchis also moved to northern Xinjiang. According to Henry Schwarz, "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".[85] Ironically, the destruction of the Dzungars by the Qing led to the consolidation of Turkic Muslim power in the region, since Turkic Muslim culture and identity were tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.[86]
In 1759, the Qing dynasty proclaimed that the land formerly belonging to the Dzungars was now part of "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu memorial.[87][88][89] The Qing ideology of unification portrayed the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Mongols, Oirats, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese as "one family" united in the Qing state. The Qing described the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (中外一家) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" to different peoples.[90]
TheQianlong Emperor took great care to document his successes in the war.[10] He ordered the painting of the 100 most meritorious servitors of the Qing (紫光阁功臣像: brave Qing officers, generals, and also a fewTorghut andDörbed allies, as well as vanquishedChoros Oirats, or MuslimUyghur allies such asKhojis orAmin Khoja), as well as paintings of the battle scenes whenever the Qing succeeded. The faces are in a Western realistic style, while the bodies were probably drawn by Chinese court artists.[10] According to contemporaryJesuit painterJean-Denis Attiret: "During the whole duration of this war against the Eleuths and other Tartars, their allies, whenever the imperial troops gained some victories, the painters were ordered to paint them. Those of the most important officers who had played the decisive roles in the events were favoured to appear in the paintings according to what really had happened".[10] These paintings were all made by foreign artists, specifically theJesuits underGiuseppe Castiglione, and Chinese court-painters under their direction.[10]
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‡ Note:Although Amursana had de facto control of some areas of Dzungaria during 1755–1756, he could never officially become Khan due to the inferior rank of his clan, theKhoid.
The Oirats converted toTibetan Buddhism in 1615.[21]
Oirat society was similar to other nomadic societies. It was heavily dependent on animal husbandry, but also practiced limited agriculture. After the conquest of theYarkent Khanate in 1680, they used people from theTarim Basin (taranchi) as slave labour to cultivate land in Dzungaria. The Dzungar economy and industry were fairly complex for a nomadic society. They had iron, copper, and silver mines producing raw ore, which the Dzungars made into weapons and shields, including even firearms, bullets, and other utensils. The Dzungars were able to indigenously manufacture firearms to a degree that was unique in Central Asia at the time.[93] In 1762, the Qing army discovered four large Dzungar bronze cannons, eight "soaring" cannons, and 10,000 shells.[94]
In 1640, the Oirats created an Oirat Mongol Legal Code, which regulated the tribes and gave support to theGelug Yellow Hat sect.Erdeni Batur assistedZaya Pandita in creating theClear Script.[95]
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