Dvaravati Empire | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6th–11th century | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dvaravati Kingdom/culture and contemporary Asian polities, 800 CE | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
 Spread of Dvaravati culture and Mon Dvaravati sites  Mon wheel of the law (Dharmacakra), art of Dvaravati period, c. 8th century CE  Buddha, art of Dvaravati period, c. 8th-9th century CE  Bronze double denarius of the Gallic Roman emperorVictorinus (269-271 AD) found at U Thong, Thailand  Khao Khlang Nai was a Buddhist sanctuary. The central stupa, rectangular in shape and oriented toward the east, is characteristic of dvaravati architectural style, dated back around 6th-7th century CE.  Khao Khlang Nok, was an ancient Dvaravati-style stupa in Si Thep, dated back around 8th-9th century CE, at present, it is large laterite base. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Capital | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Old Mon | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Religion | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Post-classical era | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Established | 6th century | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 11th century | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dvaravati (Thai:ทวารวดี) was a medievalMon political principality from the 6th century to the 11th century, located in the region now known ascentral Thailand,[5][6]: 234 and was speculated to be a succeeding state ofLang-chia or Lang-ya-hsiu (หลังยะสิ่ว).[7]: 268–270, 281 It was described by Chinese pilgrims in the middle of the 7th century as a Buddhist kingdom namedTo-lo-po-ti situated to the west ofIsanapura (Cambodia), to the east ofSri Ksetra (Burma),[8]: 76 [9]: 37 and adjoinedPan Pan in the South.[7]: 267, 269 Its northern border metChia-lo-she-fo, which was speculated to be eitherKalasapura, situated along the coast of theBay of Bengal somewhere betweenTavoy andRangoon,[10]: 108 orCanasapura in modernnortheast Thailand.[11] Dvaravati sent the first embassy to the Chinese court around 605–616.[7]: 264
Dvaravati also refers to a culture, an art style, and a disparate conglomeration ofprincipalities ofMon people.[3] The Mon migrants as maritime traders might have brought the Dvaravati Civilization to theMenam Valley around 3000 BCE,[12]: 32 which continued to the presence of a "Proto-Dvaravati" period that spans the 4th to 5th centuries, and perhaps earlier.[3]
The center of the early Davaravati was speculated to beAyodhyapura (present-daySi Thep) but the power was shifted to the lower basin inLavo'sLavapura in the 10th and 11th centuries.[2] The rise of theAngkor in the lowerMekong basin around the 11th–13th centuries, theMenam Valley and the upperMalay peninsula conquered ofTambralinga's king Sujita who also seizedLavo in the mid-10th century,[7]: 283 [13]: 16 the 9-year civil wars in theAngkor in the early 11th century, which led to the devastation ofLavo,[14] as well as thePagan invasion of Menam Valley around the mid-10th century.[13]: 41 [15]: 4 All of these potentially are the causes of the fall of the Dvaravati civilization.[7]: 283 [13]: 41
In the 11th century, Dvaravati's succeeded polity,[16] mentioned asXiān (暹) by the Chinese and Đại Việt sources, was formed in the lowerMenam Basin. This new polity was later known as theAyutthaya Kingdom in the mid-14th century.[1] Its capital's full name also referred to Dvaravati;Krung Thep Dvaravati Si Ayutthaya (Thai:กรุงเทพทวารวดีศรีอยุธยา).[17][18][19][20] All former Dvaravati principalities, Lavo, the northern cities of theSukhothai Kingdom, andSuphannabhum, was later incorporated to theAyutthaya Kingdom in 1388, 1438, and the mid-15 century, respectively.[21]: 274 According to the Burmese Inscription ofHsinbyushin ofAva A.D. 1768 (Serial No. 1128),[22] which was found on a bronze gun atShwezigon Pagoda, and acquired by the Burmese in 1767, the Burmese continued to refer to Ayutthaya as Dvaravati[23] by describing the "conquest of Dvāravati (Siam)"[22] even after its fall to a Burmese invasion during thePagan Kingdom. Several genetic studies published in the 2020s also founded the relations between theMon people andSiamese people (Central Thai people) who were the descendants of the Ayutthaya.[24][25]
The culture of Dvaravati was based around moated cities, the earliest of which appears to beU Thong in what is nowSuphan Buri Province. Other key sites includeNakhon Pathom,Phong Tuk,Si Thep,Khu Bua andSi Mahosot, amongst others.[3] AKhmer inscription dated 937 documents a line of princes ofCanasapura started by aBhagadatta and ended by a Sundaravarman and his sons Narapatisimhavarman and Mangalavarman.[8]: 122 But at that time, the 12th century, Dvaravati began to come under constant attacks and aggressions of theKhmer Empire and centralSoutheast Asia was ultimately invaded by KingSuryavarman II in the first half of the 12th century.[26]Hariphunchai survived its southern progenitors until the late 13th century, when it was incorporated intoLan Na.[27]
The term Dvaravati derives from coins which were inscribed inSanskritśrī dvāravatī. The Sanskrit worddvāravatī literally means "that which has gates".[28]: 301 According to the inscription N.Th. 21 found in 2019 in Wat Phra Ngam in Nakhon Pathom, dated the 6th century, three regional cities were mentioned, including Śrīyānaṁdimiriṅga or Śrīyānaṁdimiriṅgapratipura, then Hastināpurī and Dvāravatī, which madeNakhon Pathom where the fractions was discovered probably the center of Dvāravatī.[29]: 281
The traditional chronology of Dvaravati is mainly based on the Chinese textual account and stylistic comparison by art historians. However, the results from excavations inChan Sen and Tha Muang mound at U-Thong raise questions about the traditional dating. Newly dated typical Dvaravati cultural items from the site ofU-Thong indicate that the starting point of the tradition of Dvaravati culture possibly dates as far back as 200 CE.[30][3] Archaeological, art historical, and epigraphic (inscriptions) evidence all indicate, however, that the main period of Dvaravati spanned the seventh to ninth centuries.[3] Dvaravati culture and influence also spread intoIsan and parts of lowlandLaos from the sixth century onward. Key sites includeMueang Fa Daet inKalasin Province,Sema [th] inNakhon Ratchasima Province, and many others.[31][32]
Little is known about the administration of Dvaravati. It might simply have been a loose gathering ofchiefdoms rather than a centralised state, expanding from the coastal area of the upper peninsula to the riverine region ofChao Phraya River.Hinduism andBuddhism were significant. The three largest settlements appear to have been atNakhon Pathom,Suphanburi, and Praak Sriracha, with additional centers atU Thong, Chansen,Khu Bua, Pong Tuk, Mueang Phra Rot,Lopburi, Si Mahosot,Kamphaeng Saen, Dong Lakhon, U-Taphao, Ban Khu Mueang, andSi Thep.[28]: 303–312
According to the Chinese record during theTang Dynasty, Dvaravati has two vassal kingdoms, includingTou Yuan (陀垣) near the present-Chanthaburi, and an island kingdomTanling (曇陵), whose exact location remains unknown.[33]: 15–16
A study on Dvaravati settlement patterns before the 14th century in the upperChi-Mun River basin suggests that Dvaravati might have been made up of several kingdoms linked by trade networks and centered at supra-regional level settlements, such asDong Mueang Aem,Phimai,Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang,Mueang Sema [th],Non Mueang, andSi Thep.[34]: 151–152
The excavation in several sites found silver coins dated the 7th century that mentioned the king and queen of the kingdom written inSanskrit withPallava script:śrīdvaravatīsvarapunya (King Sridvaravati, who has great merit) andśrīdvaravatīsvaradevīpuṇya (the goddess of the meritorious King Dvaravati).[35] In addition, the copper plate dating from the 6th–mid 7th centuries found atU Thong also mentions King Harshavarman (หรรษวรมัน), who was assumed byJean Boisselier to be one of the kings of Dvaravati, while George Cœdès considered the plate was brought from the Khmer Empire, and the name mentioned might be the Khmer king as well.[36] However, the periods seem unrelated since KingHarshavarman I of Khmer reigned from 910–923, 200 years later than the age of the inscription,[37][38] and Harshavarman I's grandfather wasIndravarman I,[39][40][41] not Isanavarman as the inscription mentioned.[36]
| Moreover, the inscription found in Ban Wang Pai,Phetchabun province (K. 978), dated 550 CE, also mentions the enthronement of the Dvaravati ruler, who was also a son of Prathivindravarman, father ofBhavavarman I ofChenla, which shows the royal lineage relation between Dvaravati and Chenla. However, the name of such a king was missing.[44] The other king was mentioned in the Nern Phra Ngam inscription, found inNakhon Pathom province, dated mid 5th – mid 6th centuries CE but the name was missing as well.[45] However, some research suggests Bhavavarman mentioned in the Ban Wang Pai inscription of Si Thep may not beBhavavarman I ofChenla due to different inscription styles.[46]: 17–19 The left chart shows the dynastic relation between Dvaravati polities and other kingdoms in theChao Phraya–Mekong Valleys Ruler ofHaripuñjaya | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The following is a list of rulers of Dvaravati.
| Name | Reign | Title | Note | Source(s) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Romanized | Thai | ||||||||
| Chakravantin | จักรวรรติน | Unknown | King ofSi Thep (Ayodhyapura?) | Father of Prathivindravarman | Wang Pai Inscription (K.978)[44] | ||||
| Prathivindravarman | ปฤถิวีนทรวรมัน | ?–550 | Father ofBhavavarman I ofChenla? | ||||||
| Unknown or Bhavavarman[a] | 550–? | Son of Prathivindravarman | |||||||
| Unknown | c. 6th century | King of Dvaravati | Inscription on the Dvaravati coins[45]: 3544 andWat Phra Ngam Inscription [th][45]: 3547 | ||||||
| Kakapat/ Sakkorndam | กากะพัตร/สักกรดำ | 566–638 | King of Takkasila (Ayodhyapura?) | Northern Chronicle [th][42]: 3, 25 | |||||
| After the death ofBhavavarman I's brotherMahendravarman, his son—Isanavarman I—expanded his influence to theChao Phraya Valley in the early 7th century.[47]: 57 | |||||||||
| Kalavarnadishraj | กาฬวรรณดิศราช | 638–648?/700? | King of Takkasila (Ayodhyapura?) | Son of Kakapat. Later became king ofLavo (r. 648–700) | Northern Chronicle [th][42]: 25 | ||||
| Ramaraj | รามราช | 648?/700?–? | King of Ramburi (Ayodhyapura?) | Spouse ofHaripuñjaya's queenCamadevi | Jinakalamali[43] | ||||
| Rulers after the reign of Ramaraj are still unknown. | |||||||||
| The influence ofChenla was probably ended whenChenla faced the power struggle which led to kingdom division in the late 7th century during the reign ofJayadevi. | |||||||||
| Adītaraj | อาทิตยราช | late 800s | King ofAyodhyapura | Adversary ofYasodharapura | Ratanabimbavamsa [th][48]: 51 | ||||
| Rajathirat | ราชาธิราช | before 946 | Jinakalamali[2] | ||||||
| Fall ofAyodhyapura, the center of power was probably shifted toLavo's Lavapura in the 10th century.[2] Dvaravati was then divided into two main polities:Lavo Kingdom in the east andSuphannaphum in the west. A new settlement known asMueang Wat Derm (เมืองวัดเดิม) was founded southwestward in the lower plain in 934.[42]: 30 [b] In the 1080s, the city was set as a new Lavo capital and renamedAyodhya, which continued to the formation of theAyutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century.[2] | |||||||||
| Rulers before the reign of Vap Upendra are still unknown. | |||||||||
| Vap Upendra | วาป อุเปนทร | 949-? | Governor ofRāmaññadesa | Relative ofRajendravarman II ofAnkor | Rajendravarman II Inscription[45]: 3546 | ||||
Dvaravati itself was heavily influenced byIndian culture, and played an important role in introducingBuddhism and particularlyBuddhist art to the region.Stuccomotifs on the religious monuments includegarudas,makaras, andNāgas. Additionally, groups of musicians have been portrayed with their instruments, prisoners, females with their attendants, soldiers indicative of social life.Votive tablets have also been found, alsomoulds for tinamulets, pottery,terracotta trays, and abronze chandelier,earrings, bells andcymbals.[28]: 306–308
.png)
.svg)
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)TA-HTAUNG TA_YA HNIT-HSE SHIT-KHU DWARAWATI THEIN YA - 1128 year (= 1766 A.D) obtained at the conquest of Dwarawati (= Siam). One may note that in that year the Burmese invaded Siam and captured Ayutthaya, the capital, in 1767.
Ayutthaya, they still named the kingdom after its former kingdom as "Krung Thep Dvaravati Sri Ayutthaya".
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Dvaravati historical sites in Thailand | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||||
| Supra-regional center | |||||||||
| Regional center |
| ||||||||
| Local settlement |
| ||||||||
| Architecture | |||||||||
| Antiquity | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| History | |||||||||||
| Initial states |
| ||||||||||
| Regional kingdoms |
| ||||||||||
| Regional history | |||||||||||
| Topical history | |||||||||||
