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Dutch-language literature (Dutch:Nederlandstalige literatuur) comprises all writings ofliterary merit writtenthrough the ages in theDutch language, a language which currently has around 23 million native speakers. Dutch-language literature is the product ofthe Netherlands,Belgium (see alsoliterature of Flanders),Suriname, theNetherlands Antilles and of formerly Dutch-speaking regions, such asFrench Flanders,South Africa, andIndonesia. TheDutch East Indies, as Indonesia was called under Dutch colonization, spawned aseparate subsection in Dutch-language literature.[1][2] Conversely, Dutch-language literature sometimes was and is produced by people originally from abroad who came to live in Dutch-speaking regions, such asAnne Frank andKader Abdolah. In its earliest stages, Dutch-language literature is defined as those pieces of literary merit written in one of the Dutch dialects of theLow Countries. Before the 17th century, there was no unified standard language; the dialects that are considered Dutch evolved fromOld Frankish. A separateAfrikaans literature started to emerge during the 19th century, and it shares the same literary roots as contemporary Dutch, asAfrikaans evolved from 17th-century Dutch. The term Dutch literature may either indicate in a narrow sense literature from the Netherlands, or alternatively Dutch-language literature (as it is understood in this article).
Until the end of the 11th century, Dutch literature, like literature elsewhere in Europe, was almost entirelyoral and in the form ofpoetry. In the 12th and 13th century, writers starting writingchivalric romances andhagiographies for noblemen. From the 13th century, literature became more didactic and developed a proto-national character, as it was written for the bourgeoisie. With the close of the 13th century a change appeared in Dutch literature. The Flemish and Hollandic towns began to prosper and a new sort of literary expression began. Around 1440, literaryguilds calledrederijkerskamers ("Chambers of Rhetoric") arose which were usuallymiddle-class in tone. Of these chambers, the earliest were almost entirely engaged in preparingmysteries andmiracle plays for the people.Anna Bijns (c. 1494–1575) is an important figure who wrote inmodern Dutch. TheReformation appeared in Dutch literature in a collection of Psalm translations in 1540 and in a 1566 New Testament translation in Dutch. The greatest of all Dutch writers is widely considered to be the playwright and poetJoost van den Vondel (1587–1679).
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the Low Countries had gone through major political upheaval. The most prominent writers wereWillem Bilderdijk (1756–1831),Hiëronymus van Alphen (1746–1803), andRhijnvis Feith (1753–1824).Piet Paaltjens (ps. of François Haverschmidt, 1835–1894) represents in Dutch the Romantic vein exemplified byHeine. A new movement calledTachtigers or "Movement of (Eighteen-)Eighty", after the decade in which it arose. One of the most important historical writers of the 20th century wasJohan Huizinga, who is known abroad and translated in different languages and included in severalgreat books lists. During the 1920s, a new group of writers who distanced themselves from the ornate style of the Movement of 1880 arose, led byNescio (J.H.F. Grönloh, 1882–1961). During WW II, influential writers includedAnne Frank (whosediary was published posthumously) died in a Germanconcentration camp, as didcrime fiction writer,journalist andpoetJan Campert. Writers who had lived through the atrocities of the Second World War reflected in their works on the changed perception of reality. Obviously many looked back on their experiences the wayAnne Frank had done in her Diary, this was the case withHet bittere kruid (The bitter herb) ofMarga Minco, andKinderjaren (Childhood) ofJona Oberski. The renewal, which in literary history would be described as "ontluisterend realisme" (shocking realism), is mainly associated with three authors:Gerard Reve,W.F. Hermans andAnna Blaman. Reve and Hermans are often cited together withHarry Mulisch as the "Big Three" of Dutch postwar literature.
Around 500 AD,Old Frankish evolved toOld Dutch, aWest Germanic language that was spoken by theFranks and to a lesser extent by people living in theregions conquered by the Franks. Until the end of the 11th century, Dutch literature - like literature elsewhere in Europe - was almost entirelyoral and in the form ofpoetry, as this helpedtroubadours remembering and reciting their texts. Scientific and religious texts were written inLatin and as a consequence most texts written in the Netherlands were written in Latin rather than Old Dutch. Extant Dutch texts from this period are rare.
In the earliest stages of the Dutch language, a considerable degree of mutual intelligibility with most other West Germanic dialects was present, and some fragments and authors can be claimed by both Dutch andGerman literature. Examples include the 10th-centuryWachtendonck Psalms, aWest Low Franconian translation of some of thePsalms on the threshold of what is considered Dutch, and the 12th-centuryCounty of Loon poetHenric van Veldeke (1150 – after 1184).
TheLeiden Willeram is the name given to a manuscript containing a Low Franconian version of the Old High German commentary onSong of Solomon by the German abbotWilliram of Ebersberg (ultimately byIsidore of Seville). Until recently, based on its orthography and phonology the text of this manuscript was believed by most scholars to be Middle Franconian, that is Old High German, with some Limburgic or otherwise Franconian admixtures. But in 1974, the German philologistWilly Sanders proved in his studyDer Leidener Willeram that the text actually represents an imperfect attempt by a scribe from the northwestern coastal area of the Low Countries to translate theEast Franconian original into his local vernacular. The text contains many Old Dutch words not known in Old High German, as well as mistranslated words caused by the scribe's unfamiliarity with some Old High German words in the original he translated, and a confused orthography heavily influenced by the Old High German original. For instance, the grapheme <z> is used after the High German tradition where it represents Germanict shifted to/ts/. Sanders also proved that the manuscript, now in the University Library ofLeiden University, was written at the end of the 11th century in the Abbey ofEgmond in modern North Holland, whence the manuscript's other nameEgmond Willeram.
The oldest known poetry was written by a West-Flemishmonk in aconvent inRochester,England, around 1100:hebban olla vogala nestas hagunnan hinase hic enda thu wat unbidan we nu ("All birds have started making nests, except me and you, what are we waiting for"). According to professorLuc de Grauwe the text could equally well beOld English, more specificallyOld Kentish, though there is no consensus on this hypothesis. At that time,Old (West) Dutch and Old English were very similar.
Another important source for Old Dutch is the so-calledRhinelandic Rhyming Bible (Dutch:Rijnlandse Rijmbijbel and German:Rheinische Reimbibel). This is a verse translation of biblical histories, attested only in a series of fragments, which was composed in a mixed dialect containingLow German, Old Dutch and High German (Rhine-Franconian) elements.[3] It was likely composed in north-west Germany in the early 12th century, possibly inWerden Abbey, nearEssen.
In the 12th and 13th century, writers starting writingchivalric romances andhagiographies (i.e. stories about the lives of saints) for paying noblemen. From the 13th century, literature became more didactic and developed a proto-national character. The primary audience was no longer the nobility, but the bourgeoisie. The growing importance of the Southern Low Countries resulted in most works being written inBrabant,Flanders andLimburg.
In the first stages of Dutch literature, poetry was the predominant form of literary expression. It was both in theLow Countries and the rest ofEurope thatcourtly romance andpoetry were popularliterary genres during theMiddle Ages. OneMinnesanger was the aforementioned Van Veldeke, the first Dutch-language writer known by name, who also wroteepic poetry and hagiographies.[4] Thechivalric romance was a popular genre as well, often featuringKing Arthur orCharlemagne asprotagonist.
As the political and cultural emphasis at the time lay in the southern provinces, most of the works handed down from the early Middle Ages were written in southern Low Franconian dialects such asLimburgish,Flemish andBrabantic. The first Dutch language writer known by name is Van Veldeke, who wrote courtly love poetry, and epics.
Beatrice of Nazareth (1200–1268) was the first known prose writer in the Dutch language, the author of theSeven Ways of Holy Love. TheBrusselsfriar Jan van Ruusbroec (better known in English as theBlessedJohn of Ruysbroeck, 1293/4–1381) followed Beatrice in taking prose out of the economic and political realms and using it for literary purposes. He wrote sermons filled withmystic thought.
A number of the surviving Dutch language epic works, especially thecourtly romances, were copies from or expansions of earlier German orFrench efforts, but there are examples of truly original works (such as the anonymousKarel ende Elegast) and even Dutch-language works that formed the basis for version in other languages (such as the morality playElckerlijc that formed the basis forEveryman). Another genre popular in the Middle Ages was thefable, and the most elaborate fable produced by Dutch literature was an expanded adaptation of theReynard the Fox tale,Vanden vos Reynaerde ("Of Reynard the Fox"), written around 1250 by a person only identified as Willem.
Until the 13th century, theMiddle Dutch language output mainly serviced the aristocratic and monastic orders, recording the traditions ofchivalry and of religion, but scarcely addressed the bulk of the population. With the close of the 13th century a change appeared in Dutch literature. The Flemish and Hollandic towns began to prosper and to assert theircommercial supremacy over theNorth Sea, and these cities won privileges amounting almost to political independence. With this liberty there arose a new sort of literary expression.
The most important exponent of this new development wasJacob van Maerlant (~1235–~1300), aFlemishscholar who worked inHolland for part of his career. His key works areDer Naturen Bloeme ("The Flower of Nature", c. 1263), a collection ofmoral andsatirical addresses to allclasses ofsociety, andDe Spieghel Historiael ("The Mirror of History", c. 1284). Jacob van Maerlant straddles the cultural divide between the northern and southern provinces. Up until now, the northern provinces had produced little of worth, and this would largely remain the case until the fall ofAntwerp during theEighty Years' War shifted focus toAmsterdam. He is sometimes referred to as the "father of Dutch poetry", "a title he merits for productivity if for no other reason."[5]
Around 1440, literaryguilds calledrederijkerskamers ("Chambers of Rhetoric") arose. These guilds, whose members called themselvesRederijkers or "Rhetoricians", were in almost all casesmiddle-class in tone, and opposed toaristocratic ideas and tendencies in thought. Of these chambers, the earliest were almost entirely engaged in preparingmysteries andmiracle plays for the people. Soon their influence grew until nofestival orprocession could take place in a town unless the Chamberpatronized it. The Chambers' plays very rarely dealt withhistorical or evenBiblical personages, but entirely with allegorical and moral abstractions and were didactic in nature. The most notable examples of Rederijker theatre includeMariken van Nieumeghen ("Mary ofNijmegen") andElckerlijc (which was translated intoEnglish asEveryman).
At the close of the early period,Anna Bijns (c. 1494–1575) stands as a transitional figure. Bijns was anAntwerpschoolmistress andlay nun whose main targets were thefaith and character ofLuther. In her first volume of poetry (1528) theLutherans are scarcely mentioned and focus lies on her personal experience of faith, but in that of 1538 one finds sharp words for the Lutherans on every page. With the writings of Bijns, the period ofMiddle Dutch closes and themodern Dutch begins (see alsoHistory of the Dutch language).
The first ripples of theReformation appeared in Dutch literature in a collection of Psalm translations printed at Antwerp in 1540 under the title ofSouter-Liedekens ("Psalter Songs"). For theProtestantcongregations,Jan Utenhove printed a volume of Psalms in 1566 and made the first attempt at a New Testament translation in Dutch. Very different in tone were the battle songs sung by the Reformers, theGueux songs. The famoussongbook of 1588,Een Geusen Lied Boecxken ("A Gueux Songbook"), was full of heroic sentiment.
Philips van Marnix, lord of Sint-Aldegonde (1538–1598) was one of the leading spirits in thewar of Dutch independence and an intimate friend ofWilliam I, Prince of Orange. The lyrics toWilhelmus van Nassouwe, the current Dutchnational anthem and anapology of the Prince's actions composed around 1568, areascribed to Marnix. His chief work was 1569'sBiëncorf der Heilige Roomsche Kercke (Beehive of the Holy Roman Church), asatire of theRoman Catholic church. Marnix occupied the last years of his life in preparing a Dutch version of theBible, translated directly from the original; at his death onlyGenesis was completed. In 1619 theSynod of Dort placed the unfinished work in the hands of fourtheologians, who completed it. This translation formed the starting point for theStatenvertaling or "States' Translation", a full Bible translation into Dutch ordered by the Synod. In order to be intelligible to all Dutchmen, the Statenvertaling included elements of all main Dutch dialects and so became the cornerstone of modern standard Dutch.
Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert (1522–1590) was the Low Countries' first truly humanist writer. In 1586 he produced his original masterpiece, theZedekunst ("Art ofEthics"), a philosophicaltreatise in prose. Coornhert'shumanism unites theBible,Plutarch andMarcus Aurelius in one grand system of ethics.
By this time, the religious and political upheaval in the Low Countries had resulted in the 1581Act of Abjuration, deposing their king,Philip II of Spain and the subsequenteighty years' struggle to confirm that declaration. As a result, thesouthern provinces, some of which had supported the declaration, were separated from thenorthern provinces as they remained under Spanish rule. Ultimately, this would result in the present-day states ofBelgium (south) and theNetherlands (north). After Antwerphad fallen into Spanish hands in 1585, Amsterdam became the centre of all literary enterprise as allintelligentsia fled towards the north. This meant both a cultural renaissance in the north and a sharp decline in the south at the same time, regarding the level of Dutch literature practised. The north received a cultural and intellectual boost whereas in the south, Dutch was largely replaced byFrench as the language of culture and administration.
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In Amsterdam, a circle of poets and playwrights formed aroundMaecenas-like figureRoemer Visscher (1547–1620), which would eventually be known as theMuiderkring ("Circle ofMuiden") after the residence of its most prominent member,Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft (1581–1647), writer of pastoral and lyric poetry and history. From 1628 to 1642 he wrote his masterpiece, theNederduytsche Historiën ("History of the Netherlands"). Hooft was a purist in style, modelling himself (in prose) afterTacitus. He is considered one of the greatest historians, not merely of the Low Countries, but of Europe. His influence in standardising the language of his country is considered enormous, as many writers conformed themselves to the stylistic and grammatical model Hooft devised. Other members of his Circle included Visscher's daughterTesselschade (1594–1649,lyric poetry) andGerbrand Adriaensz Bredero (1585–1618, romantic plays and comedies), whose best-known piece isDe Spaansche Brabanber Jerolimo ("Jerolimo, the Spanish Brabanter"), a satire upon therefugees from thesouth. A versatile poet loosely associated with the Circle of Muiden was thediplomatConstantijn Huygens (1596–1687), perhaps best known for his wittyepigrams. Huygens' style was bright and vivacious and he was a consummate artist in metrical form.
The greatest of all Dutch writers is widely considered to be the playwright and poetJoost van den Vondel (1587–1679), who mainly wrote historical and biblical tragedies. In 1625 he published what seemed an innocent study from the antique, his tragedy ofPalamedes, or Murdered Innocence, but which was a thinly veiled tribute toJohan van Oldebarnevelt, the Republic'sGrand Pensionary, who had been executed in 1618 by order ofstadtholderMaurice of Nassau. Vondel became in a week the most famous writer in the Netherlands and for the next twelve years, until the accession of stadtholderFrederick Henry, had to maintain a hand-to-hand combat with theCalvinists of Dordrecht. In 1637 Vondel wrote of his most popular works on the occasion of the opening of a new Amsterdam theatre:Gijsbrecht van Aemstel, a play on a local historical figure loosely modeled on material from theAeneid that is still staged to this day. In 1654 Vondel brought out what most consider the best of all his works, the tragedy ofLucifer, from which it is saidMilton drew inspiration. Vondel is considered the typical example of Dutch creativity and imagination at their highest development.
A similar school to that in Amsterdam arose inMiddelburg, the capital ofZeeland, led byJacob Cats (1577–1660). In Cats the genuine Dutch habit of thought, the utilitarian and didactic spirit reached itszenith of fluency and popularity. During early middle life he produced the most important of his writings, his didactic poems, theMaechdenplicht ("Duty of Maidens") and theSinne- en Minnebeelden ("Images of Allegory and Love"). In 1624 he moved from Middelburg to Dordrecht, where he soon after published his ethical work calledHouwelick ("Marriage"); and this was followed by an entire series of moral pieces. Cats is considered somewhat dull and prosaic by some, yet his popularity with the middle classes in the Netherlands has always been immense.
As with contemporaryEnglish literature, the predominant forms of literature produced in this era werepoetry anddrama, Coornhert (philosophy) and Hooft (history) being the main exceptions. In another prose genre,Johan van Heemskerk (1597–1656) was the leading man of a new vogue blown over fromFrance: theromance. In 1637 he produced hisBatavische Arcadia ("BatavianArcadia"), the first original Dutch romance, in its day extremely popular and widely imitated. Another exponent of this genre wasNikolaes Heinsius the Younger, whoseMirandor (1695) resembles but precedesLesage'sGil Blas.
The period from 1600 to 1650 was the blossoming time in Dutch literature. During this period the names of greatest genius were first made known to the public and the vigour and grace of literary expression reached their highest development. It happened, however, that three men of particularly commanding talent survived to an extreme old age, and under the shadow of Vondel, Cats and Huygens sprang up a new generation which sustained the great tradition until around 1670, when decline set in sharply.
After the great division of theLow Countries into theDutch Republic and theSpanish Netherlands formalised in thePeace of Westphalia (1648), "Dutch literature" almost exclusively meant "Republican literature", as theDutch language fell into disfavour with the southern rulers. A notable exception was theDunkirk writerMichiel de Swaen (1654–1707), who wrote comedies, moralities and biblical poetry. During his lifetime (1678) theSpanish lost Dunkirk to the French and so De Swaen is also the firstFrench-Flemish writer of importance.
Theplaywrights of the time followed the French model ofCorneille and others, led byAndries Pels (d. 1681). A well-known poet of this period wasJan Luyken (1649–1712). A writer who revived especially an interest in literature wasJustus van Effen (1684–1735). He was born atUtrecht and was influenced byHuguenot émigrés who had fled for the Republic after therevocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Van Effen wrote in French for a great part of his literary career but, influenced by a visit toLondon where theTatler andSpectator were on the rise, from 1731 began to publish hisHollandsche Spectator ("Dutch Spectator")magazine, which his death in 1735 soon brought to a close. Still, what he composed during the last four years of his life is considered by many to constitute the most valuable legacy to Dutch literature that the middle of the 18th century left behind.
The year 1777 is considered a turning point in the history of letters in the Netherlands. It was in that year thatElizabeth “Betje” Wolff (1738–1804), awidow lady inAmsterdam, persuaded her friendAgatha “Aagje” Deken (1741–1804), a poor but intelligentgoverness, to throw up her situation and live with her. For nearly thirty years these women continued together, writing in combination. In 1782 the ladies, inspired partly byGoethe, published their first novel,Sara Burgerhart, which was enthusiastically received. Two further, less successful novels appeared before Wolff and Deken had to flee France, their country of residence, due to persecution by theDirectory.
The last years of the 18th century were marked by a general revival of intellectual force. Theromantic movement inGermany made itself deeply felt in all branches of Dutch literature and Germanlyricism took the place hitherto held by Frenchclassicism, in spite of the country falling to French expansionism (see alsoHistory of the Netherlands).
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the Low Countries had gone through major political upheaval. TheSpanish Netherlands had first become theAustrian Netherlands before beingannexed by France in 1795. TheRepublic saw a revolution inspired and backed by France that led to theBatavian Republic andKingdom of Hollandvassal states before actual French annexation in 1810. AfterNapoleon'sdownfall in theSouthern Netherlands village ofWaterloo, the northern and southern provinces were briefly united as theUnited Kingdom of the Netherlands. This period lasted until 1830 only, when the southern provincesseceded to formBelgium. It had little influence in literature, and in the new state of Belgium, the status of the Dutch language remained largely unchanged as all governmental and educational affairs were conducted in French.
Against this backdrop, the most prominent writer wasWillem Bilderdijk (1756–1831), a highly intellectual and intelligent but also eccentric man who lived a busy, eventful life, writing great quantities of verse. Bilderdijk had no time for the emerging new romantic style of poetry, but its fervour found its way into the Netherlands nevertheless, first of all in the person ofHiëronymus van Alphen (1746–1803), who today is best remembered for the verses he wrote for children. Van Alphen was an exponent of the more sentimental school along withRhijnvis Feith (1753–1824), whose romances are steeped inWeltschmerz.
InHendrik Tollens (1780–1856) some the power of Bilderdijk and the sweetness of Feith were combined. Tollens wrote nationalistic romances and lyrics celebrating the great deeds ofDutch history and today is best known for his poem "Wien Neêrlands Bloed" ("To Those in Whom Dutch Blood Flows"), which was theDutch national anthem until it was superseded in 1932 byMarnix' "Wilhelmus". A poet of considerable talent, whose powers were awakened by personal intercourse with Tollens and his followers, wasA. C. W. Staring (1767–1840). His poems are a blend of romanticism andrationalism.
The Dutch language of the north resisted the pressure of German from the outside and from within broke through its long stagnation and enriched itself, as a medium for literary expression, with a multitude of fresh and colloquial forms. At the same time, no very great genius arose in the Netherlands in any branch of literature. For the thirty or forty years preceding 1880 the course of literature in the Netherlands was smooth and even sluggish. The Dutch writers had slipped into a conventionality of treatment and a strict limitation of form from which even the most striking talents among them could scarcely escape.
Poetry and a large part of prose was dominated by the so-called school of ministers, as the leading writers all were or had beenCalvinistministers. As a result, many of their products emphasized Biblical andbourgeois domestic values. A prime example isNicolaas Beets (1814–1903), who wrote large quantities of sermons and poetry under his own name but is chiefly remembered today for the humorous prose sketches of Dutch life inCamera Obscura (1839), which he wrote during his student days under thepseudonym ofHildebrand.
A poet of power and promise was lost in the early death ofP.A. de Genestet (1829–1861). His narrative poem "De Sint-Nicolaasavond" ("Eve ofSinterklaas") appeared in 1849. Although he left no large contemporary impression,Piet Paaltjens (ps. of François Haverschmidt, 1835–1894) is considered one of the very few readable nineteenth-century poets, representing in Dutch the pure Romantic vein exemplified byHeine.
Under the influence of romantic nationalism, writers inBelgium began to reconsider their Flemish heritage and move for a recognition of the Dutch language.Charles De Coster laid the foundations for a native Belgian literature by recounting the Flemish past in historic romances but wrote his works inFrench.Hendrik Conscience (1812–1883) was the first to write aboutFlemish subjects in the Dutch language and so is considered the father of modern Flemish literature. In Flemish poetry,Guido Gezelle (1830–1899) is an important figure. Anordainedjournalist-cum-ethnologist, Gezelle celebrated his faith and his Flemish roots using an archaic vocabulary based on Medieval Flemish, somewhat to the detriment of readability. See also the article onFlemish literature.
After the restoration in 1815 to the Dutch state of theDutch East Indies, works of literature continued to be produced there. With the rise of social consciousness regarding the administration of the colonies and the treatment of their inhabitants, an influential voice rose from the Indies in the form ofMultatuli (ps. of Eduard Douwes Dekker, 1820–1887), whoseMax Havelaar (1860) is a scathing indictment of colonial mismanagement and one of the few nineteenth-century prose works still widely considered readable today.
The principles of the 1830–1880 period were summed up inConrad Busken-Huet (1826–1886), leading critic of the day; he had been during all those years the fearless and trusty watch-dog of Dutch letters as he understood them. He lived just long enough to become aware that a revolution was approaching, not to comprehend its character; but his accomplished fidelity to literary principle and his wide knowledge have been honoured even by the most bitter of the younger school.
In November 1881Jacques Perk (born 1860) died. He was no sooner dead, however, than his posthumous poems, and in particular a cycle of sonnets calledMathilde, were published (1882) and awakened extraordinary emotion. Perk had rejected all the formulas of rhetorical poetry, and had broken up the conventional rhythms. There had been heard no music like his in the Netherlands for two hundred years. A group of young men collected around his name and were joined by the poet-novelist-dramatistMarcellus Emants (1848–1923). Emants had written a symbolical poem called "Lilith" in 1879 that had been stigmatised as audacious and meaningless; encouraged by the admiration of his juniors, Emants published in 1881 a treatise in which the first open attack was made on the old school.
The next appearance was that ofWillem Kloos (1857–1938), who had been the editor and intimate friend of Perk, and who now led the new movement. His violent attacks on recognized authority in aesthetics created a considerable scandal. For some time the new poets and critics found a great difficulty in being heard, but in 1884 they founded a review,De Nieuwe Gids ("The New Guide"), which was able to offer a direct challenge to the old guard's periodicals. The new movement was calledTachtigers or "Movement of (Eighteen-)Eighty", after the decade in which it arose. TheTachtigers insisted that style must match content, and that intimate and visceral emotions can only be expressed using an intimate and visceral writing style. Prime influences of theTachtigers wereU.K. poets such asShelley and the Frenchnaturalists.
Leading representatives of theTachtigers are:
Around the same time,Louis Couperus (1863–1923) made his appearance. His boyhood years were spent inJava, and he had preserved in all his nature a certaintropical magnificence. His first literary efforts were lyrics in theTachtigers style, but Couperus proved far more important and durable as a novelist. In 1891 he publishedNoodlot, which was translated intoEnglish asFootsteps of Fate and which was greatly admired byOscar Wilde. Couperus continued to pour out one important novel after another until his death in 1923. Another talent for prose was revealed byFrederik van Eeden (1860–1932) inDe kleine Johannes ("Little Johnny", 1887) and inVan de koele meren des doods ("From the Cold Pools of Death", 1901), a melancholy novel.
After 1887 the condition of modern Dutch literature remained comparatively stationary, and within the last decade of the 19th century was definitely declining. In 1889 a new poet,Herman Gorter (1864–1927) made his appearance with anepic poem calledMei ("May"), eccentric both in prosody and in treatment. He held his own without any marked advance towards lucidity or variety. Since the recognition of Gorter, however, no really remarkable talent made itself prominent in Dutch poetry exceptP.C. Boutens (1870–1943), whoseVerzen ("Verses") in 1898 were received with great respect.
Kloos collected his poems in 1894. The others, with the exception of Couperus, showed symptoms of sinking into silence. The entire school, now that the struggle for recognition was over, rested on its triumphs and soon limited itself to a repetition of its old experiments.
The leadingdramatist at the close of the century wasHerman Heijermans (1864–1924), a writer of strongrealistic andsocialistic tendencies who single-handedly brought Dutch theatre into the modern time. Hisfishermen'stragedyOp Hoop van Zegen ("Trusting Our Fate in the Hands of God"), which is still staged, remains his most popular play.
In common with the rest ofEurope, theNetherlands of the nineteenth century effectively remained unchanged untilWorld War I (1914–1918). Belgium was invaded by theGerman Empire; the Netherlands faced severeeconomic difficulties owing to its policy ofneutrality and consequent political isolation, wedged as it was between the two warring sides.
Both the Belgian and Dutch societies emerged from the warpillarised, meaning that each of the main religious and ideological movements (Protestant, Catholic, Socialist and Liberal) stood independent of the rest, each operating its own newspapers, magazines, schools, broadcasting organizations and so on in a form of self-imposed, non-racial segregation. This in turn affected literary movements, as writers gathered around the literary magazines of each of the four "pillars" (limited to three in Belgium, as Protestantism never took root there).
One of the most important historical writers of the 20th century wasJohan Huizinga, who is known abroad and translated in different languages and included in severalgreat books lists. His written works were influenced by the literary figures of the early 20th century.
During the 1920s, a new group of writers who distanced themselves from the ornate style of the Movement of 1880 arose, claiming it to be too self-centered and distanced from real life. Their movement was called "Nieuwe Zakelijkheid", or New Objectivity. An isolated forerunner is the figure ofNescio (J.H.F. Grönloh, 1882–1961), who published his few short stories in the 1910s. A prime example of New Objectivity isF. Bordewijk (1884–1965), whose short storyBint (1931) and terse writing epitomise the style.
An offshoot of the New Objectivity movement centered on theForum magazine, which appeared in the years 1932–1935 and was edited by the leading Dutchliterary criticMenno ter Braak (1902–1940) and the novelistEdgar du Perron (1899–1940). Writers associated at one point or other with this modernist magazine include Belgian writersWillem Elsschot andMarnix Gijsen and Dutch writersJ. Slauerhoff,Simon Vestdijk andJan Greshoff.
TheSecond World War marked an abrupt change in the Dutch literary landscape. Casualties of the start of the German occupation included Du Perron (heart attack), Ter Braak (suicide) and Marsman (drowned while trying to escape to theUnited Kingdom); many other writers were forced into hiding or rounded up inNazi concentration camps, such as Vestdijk. Many writers ceased publishing as a consequence of refusing to join the German-installed Kultuurkamer (Chamber of Culture), which intended to regulate cultural life in the Netherlands. Jewish-born writerJosef Cohen escaped prosecution by converting toChristianity; aspiring writerAnne Frank (whosediary was published posthumously) died in a Germanconcentration camp, as didcrime fiction writer,journalist andpoetJan Campert, who was arrested for aiding Jews and died in 1943 inNeuengamme. His poemDe achttien dooden ("The eighteen dead"), written from the point of view of a capturedresistance member awaiting his execution, has become the most famous example of war-related Dutch literature.
Writers who had lived through the atrocities of the Second World War reflected in their works on the changed perception of reality. Obviously many looked back on their experiences the wayAnne Frank had done in her Diary, this was the case withHet bittere kruid (The bitter herb) ofMarga Minco, andKinderjaren (Childhood) ofJona Oberski. The renewal, which in literary history would be described as "ontluisterend realisme" (shocking realism), is mainly associated with three authors:Gerard Reve,W.F. Hermans andAnna Blaman. Idealism seems to have disappeared from their prose, now marked by the description of raw reality, inhumanity, with great attention to physicality and sexuality. An obvious example is "De Avonden" (The evenings) of Gerard Reve, analysing the disillusionment of an adolescent during the "wederopbouw", the period of rebuilding after the destruction of World War II. In Flanders,Louis Paul Boon andHugo Claus were the main representatives of this new literary trend.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Gosse, Edmund (1911). "Dutch Literature". InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 719–729.| International | |
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