Dusun people
Dusuns

From clockwise: Sandayo Dusun of Paitan sub-district,Beluran as well asKota Marudu district, Tindal Dusun ofKota Belud District, Liwan Dusun ofRanau as well asTambunan districts, Tobilung Dusun ofKota Belud as well as Kota Marudu districts, Kimaragang Dusun of Kota Marudu District, Tinagas Dusun of Beluran, Ranau,Telupid as well as Kota Marudu districts, Lotud Dusun ofTuaran District, and Tatana Dusun ofKuala Penyu andBeaufort districts, all in their respectivetraditional costumes
Total population
38.7% of 51.9% SabahBumiputeras (2025)[1] ≈555,647 (2010)[notes 1]
Regions with significant populations
Malaysia (Sabah,Labuan)[7][8]
Languages
Dusun, various otherDusunic,Malaysian (Sabah Malay dialect) andSabahan English
Religion
Christianity (Catholic,Protestants) (90%), Islam (Sunni) andAnimism (Traditional religion (Momolianism)) (10%)
Related ethnic groups
Austronesian peoples Kadazan-Dusun Kadazan Sino-Dusun Dusun (Brunei) Rungus Paitan Ida'an Bisaya Murut Lun Bawang/Lundayeh Dayak

TheDusun people or simply theDusuns is thecollective name of anAustronesianethnic groups indigenous toSabah, Malaysia. They primarily live on theWest Coast, in theInterior, and in theSandakan andTawau divisions, primarily in the districts ofRanau,Tambunan,Kota Kinabalu,Tuaran,Kota Marudu,Kota Belud,Beaufort,Kuala Penyu,Telupid,Keningau, andBeluran (Labuk-Sugut),^{[notes 2]} as well as in theFederal Territory ofLabuan.

The Dusuns form the largest collective ethnic group in the region with rich traditional heritage, distinctdress, language and customs based on different sub-groups, with an estimated 555,647 (mixed with theKadazans) spread across the state, where they further jointly form the largerKadazan-Dusuns.^[6] They have been internationally recognised as anindigenous group in the northern part of the island ofBorneo since 2004 by theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).^[9]

Other similarly named, but unrelated groups are also found in neighbouringBrunei andCentral Kalimantan, Indonesia. TheDusun in Brunei have distinct traditional beliefs and customs compared to those in Sabah. Bruneian Dusuns share a common origin, language and identity with theBisaya people of Brunei, northern Sarawak and southwestern Sabah.^[10] Despite these differences, both groups are part of the broaderDusunic language family. In Indonesia, the Barito Dusun groups, located throughout theBarito River system, are part of theOt Danum Dayak people, rather than being related to the Dusuns of northern Borneo.^[11][12]

The term "Dusun people" (Malay:Orang Dusun), which carries the meaning "people of theorchards",^[13][14] was early coined byBruneian Malays andChinese overlords throughout theSultanate of Brunei administration to refer to theagricultural populations of northernBorneo.^{[6][15][16][17]} Within the vocabulary ofDusunic languages, there is no "Dusun" word, and the indigenous ethnic groups referred to as Dusuns call themselves "tulun tindal" (landsman).^[18][19] Since most of the western coast of the northern part of Borneo was under the influence of Brunei, taxes called (Kadazan Dusun:duis) (also referred to as the 'river tax' in the area southeast of northern Borneo) were collected from the Dusun people.^[20] Various descriptions of the Dusuns are available throughout the British surveys and administration, the first byThomas Forrest in 1774.^[21] Another British navigator and explorer once described the Dusuns in 1884:

... peeping curiously in at the open doors and windows were numerous Dusuns, awild tribethat inhabit themountains of the northern parts of theisland... according to Mr.Brooke, they areagricultural people, having a peculiardialect of their own ...^[22][23]

Dusuns' depiction onBritish North Borneo Crown (present-day Sabah) stamps with a portrait of QueenElizabeth II, 1964

A 6¢ stamp featuring a Dusun woman with agong

A 50¢ stamp featuring a Dusun manporter withbuffalo transport

Following the establishment of theNorth Borneo Chartered Company (NBCC) and subsequently the state ofNorth Borneo in 1881, the British administration categorised the linguistically similar twelve main and thirty-three sub-tribes collectively as "Dusuns".^[24][25] The BuludupihSungei andIda'an, who had converted toIslam early, had preferred to be called "Sungei" and "Ida'an", respectively, although they come from the same sub-tribes.^[26][27][28]

Ivor Hugh Norman Evans (1886–1957), a British anthropologist, ethnographer, and archaeologist who spent most of his working life in British Malaya and British Borneo, described the Dusuns as not a single tribe but an assemblage of tribes where the term "Orang Dusun" is not the name used by the indigenous to describe themselves; the people of each district or each assemblage of village communities employ a different term, but it is a name meaning "people of the orchards".^[29] "Orang" means "people", while "Dusun" carries the meaning of an orchard used by the Bruneian Malays to denote those inhabitants of the greater part of the interior of British North Borneo.^[29] Furthermore, a Dusun house is often situated within or surrounded by a variety offruit trees likebambangan,breadfruit,cempedak,jackfruit,mango andtarap, includingcalamansi,bird's eye chilli and other Bornean native tree species, reflecting the deep connection to nature and agriculture. The Dusun term was popularised by the British administration as a unifying term among the various North Borneo sub-ethnics,^[30] who also borrowed the term from past Brunei administrations.^[31] TheRungus people were part of the Dusun sub-ethnic group but formed their own distinction.^[32]

Before 1960, most of the sub-ethnics of the Dusuns, including the Tangaah Kadazans, were known as Dusuns.^[33] In the population census conducted by the North Borneo authorities until 1960, the term "Dusun" was used to represent all the Dusun tribes and sub-tribes.^[33][34] The term "Kadazan" only began to appear in the population census conducted in Sabah in 1970 after theformation of the Malaysian federation since there had been a dispute over the use of the "Dusun" term among the Tangaah Dusun tribe of thePenampang andPapar districts,^[35][36] who resisted the use of "Dusun" to symbolise their sub-ethnicity due to previous issues throughout the British era, but with reconciliation and recognition of each other, the Dusuns in both districts are identified asKadazan people.^{[notes 3]} The "Dusun" terms used in present-day Sabah are different than the terms used in neighbouringSarawak andBrunei. The Dusuns in Sabah name the sub-ethnics of themselves based on place names,river names, ortree names such asBundu,Gana,Gonsomon,Kimaragang,Kumut,Liwan, andTuhawon, where these names are also used as identity names and names for their dialects.^[41] In Brunei, the term "Dusun" is used to describe non-Muslims living along theBelait and Tutong rivers.^[10][42]

There are various theories on the origin of the Dusuns tribe, with several historians associating the tribe with the origin ofMongoloid stock.^[33] British Major Colin Metcalfe Dallas Enríquez, through its publication in 1927, associated the Dusuns with BurmeseKachin and Vietnamese indigenous people living inAnnam (theMontagnard).^[43][44] He described:

The long communal houses, the method ofhill cultivation, therice wine of Borneo, are all repeated on theBurmese border. Both Dusun andKachin women wear hoops of lacquered cane around their bodies. Theanimism of the Dusun, with itsspirits oftrees andmountains, resembles that of the Kachins. Dusun chiefs are called"Orang Tua"; Kachin Chiefs have the title of"Duwa". Both races have the same sort of character, the samesuperstitious, the sameomen, the same curious belief.^[43][45]

The vast majority of Dusuns live in thehills and uplandvalleys and have a reputation for peacefulness, hospitality, hard work, frugality, drinking and aversion to violence.^[46][47] The Dusuns at one time made up the most important tribe ofNorth Borneo and once made up almost 40% of the region ethnic groups;^[48][49][50] divided into more than 30 sub-ethnic groups, or dialect groups, or tribes, each speaking a slightly different dialect of the Dusunic andPaitanic family languages, although they are mostly mutually understandable among each other.^[50][51][52] The classification of northern Borneo indigenous people who lived in the geographical zone between the coast and mountainous interior as Dusuns was maintained as the basis for administrative purposes.^[53]

The arrival of Christian missionaries in the 1880s brought to the Dusuns andDayaks of Borneo the ability to read, write and converse in theEnglish language. The missionaries were aware that their knowledge in Dusunic languages was also a key factor in the propagation ofChristianity among the indigenous.^[54] With improved literacy and religious education, this subsequently stimulated the indigenous to get involved in community development, with the first Dusun tribes who were first exposed to this modernisation being the Tangaa or Tangara (present-day Kadazans), who dwelt between the Papar,Membakut,Putatan and Penampang coastal plains close to British administration areas.^[55][56] The first attempt among the Dusun tribes to translate theBible was by the Tangaah Dusun followed with the creation of"Tangaa Dusun Dictionary", also referred to as the "z" dialect where the Tangaah are presently known as the Kadazan ethnic group.^[57][58] Throughout the British administration, most Dusuns have converted to mainstream religions such as Christianity (bothRoman Catholic andProtestant) and some toSunni Islam, althoughanimism is still being practised by a minority of Dusuns.^[49]

(Top) A Dusun female paddy planter in Binaong Village,Keningau District,Crown Colony of North Borneo,c. 1950–1960
(Centre) A Dusun house withcarabao (water buffalo) at theRanau Plains,Ranau District,British North Borneo,c. 1900–1920s
(Bottom) Three Tindal Dusuns women in their traditional dress inSandakan District, British North Borneo,c. 1900–1920s. One Dusun woman can be seen withBajau headdress in the far right

The Dusuns used to trade with the coastal people by bringing their agricultural andforest produce such asrice and amber "damar" (dipterocarpaceae) to exchange for salt,salted fish and other products.^[17] The Dusuns have a special term to describe this type of trading activity, which they call "mongimbadi" (going to market).^[17][59] Before the establishment ofrailroad androad networks connecting the interior with the coastal regions of Sabah, the area within the present Tambunan-Penampang road was the trading route used by the Bundu-Liwan Dusuns to cross theCrocker Range, where the present road was largely constructed based on the original trading route used by the Dusuns on their "mongimbadi".^[60] In their traditional occupation as North Borneo agricultural ethnic groups and chief-rice producers,^[61] they use various methods of farming and fishing, including using the juice called "tuba" derived from the roots of the "surinit"plant to momentarily stun fish in rivers.^[62]

The Dusuns are represented through their respective sub-ethnic associations, which are further jointly united through the primary Dusun ethnic association. Prior to theformation of the federation of Malaysia, the Dusuns together with the Muruts stipulated various condition through the20-point agreement for theNorth Borneo Crown to be part of the federation,^[64] constitute several terms from the indigenous Dusuns and Muruts for the federal government to guaranteed their rights within the federation for them to continuously living in peaceful and their rights be respected and honoured by thefederal government by maintainingfreedom of religion with nostate religion for North Borneo, all lands in the territory should be under the North Borneo government, and the federal need to regard and respecting traditional indigenous values, to ensure continuous peace and loyalty from the indigenous community.^[63]

Following the formation of the Malaysian federation, the Dusuns started to be represented through the United Sabah Dusun Association (USDA) in 1967.^[66][67][68] The USDA was later jointly merged with the Kadazan Cultural Association (KCA) to form the Kadazan Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA) in 1989 with headquarters at theKDCA Compound of Penampang District.^[66] In present days, most of the younger Dusun generation are modernised and well-integrated into thelarger framework of Malaysian society,^[69] taking up various occupations asgovernment servants and employees in theprivate sector, with some also becoming business owners.^[70] Many have completed tertiary education both locally and overseas, with many Dusuns also pursuing their studies atWestern countries' tertiary educational institutes.^[71][72] With increasing modernisation andglobalisation, the modern Dusun community also struggles to keep the traditional values of their community, such as the customs, taboos and languages, since many of the modern Dusun generations, comfortable living a modern life with modern technologies, have become increasingly unaware of their ethnic identities.^[73] In pursuing the indigenous languages of the Dusuns to remain in place like the major community languages of West Malaysia within the federation, the indigenous community also faced tension with Malay ethno-nationalism, which has the central place in Malaysia's state nationalist project.^[74]

The Dusuns have anoral history passed down through generations that their origin is tied to thelegendary site ofNunuk Ragang, a giant redbanyan tree where their ancestors are said to have first settled in what is northern Borneo.^[75][76] Based on the beliefs of the original traditionalAnimist-Pagan religion of the Dusuns known asMomolianism, as mentioned under the Kadazan-Dusun Genesis, the origin of the Kadazan-Dusun through theNunuk Ragang was firstly throughKinoingan andSuminundu,^[77][78] thecreators who also have a daughter namedHuminodun, which later became the roots of the annualharvest festival celebration ofKaamatan celebrated by both the Dusuns and Kadazans.^[79][80][81]

According to aGenome-widesingle-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)genotypic data studies byhuman genetics research team fromUniversity of Malaysia Sabah in 2018, the northern Bornean Dusun (comprising the Sonsogon, Rungus, Lingkabau and Murut) are closely related toTaiwan natives (theAmis andAtayal) and non–Austro-Melanesian Filipinos (theVisayans,Tagalog,Ilocano, andManobo), rather than populations from other parts of Borneo.^[82] Further, in 2021, the Dusuns have been equated with one of the indigenous tribes inFormosa (present-day Taiwan), theBunun, who have more similarities to the Dusuns than other tribes of Taiwan.^[83] Based on studies, the latterdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), culture, and beliefs are the most identical, especially in the worship of paddy spirit and the presence of their own femaleshamans.^[83][84]

The Dusun tribe comprised different sub-ethnics which were classified by the BritishNorth Borneo Chartered Company (NBCC) administration in the 1800s and maintained to this day for administrative purposes.^[53][85] During the administration of the NBCC, both the Dusun and Murut are the predominating indigenous tribes ofBritish North Borneo.^[86] Throughout the administration, however, theBritish protectorate government at the time was unable to correctly ascertain the ethnic groups that were categorised as Dusun and Kadazan, despite each indigenous person being recorded and categorised into the British North Borneo indigenous categories such as Dumpas, Idahan, Liwan, Lotud, Mangkahak, Maragang, Minokok, Murut, Paitan, Rumanau, Rungus, Tombonuo, Tanggara, Tindal, Tagahas, and Tingaras.^[87][88] The difficulty in understanding ethnic diversity among the indigenous population was caused by the inconsistency of ethnic classification in the NBCC administration's census.^[87] Several errors have occurred in the process of classifying the indigenous ethnic population throughout British administration since 1901, mostly due to the frequent changing of the demarcation of North Borneo provinces.^[87][89] Different Dusun sub-tribes lived throughout different districts of Sabah, where they lived in groups in an area according to their respective groups.^[90] Within the federation of Malaysia, the Dusuns are considered as one of SabahBumiputeras.^[91] Among the well-known Dusun sub-ethnics are the Gana, Kimaragang, Kujau, Liwan, Lotud, Tagahas, Tatana, Tindal, Tobilung and many others.

In theBeluran District ofSandakan Division, the main Dusun sub-ethnic group is the Labuk Dusun, whose name originated from the Labuk River,^[92] while the name of Beluran District itself is taken from the Labuk Dusun word"Buludan".^[93] Their main village is within the Kuala Sapi Village.^[92] The sub-ethnic originally constituting groups of"bansa sabanar" such as Dalamason, Putih, Sogilitan, Tindakon, Tompulung, and Turavid in the lower Labuk River.^[94][95] There were approximately 6,449 Labuk Dusun within the district in 1998, where they practised shifting dry paddy cultivation and beliefs inMomolianism, including oral traditions such askurilang,mansuak,mogindong,runsai andtangon.^[96]

The Dusun sub-ethnics inKeningau District ofInterior Division can be divided into several sub-groups, such as the Gana Dusun and Kujau Dusun (Kwijau), of which both traced their origin from theNunuk Ragang.^[97] Both the Gana and Kujau are closely related to Dusuns, while another group in Keningau, the Nabaai are related to theMurut people.^[97] All three sub-groups were the original indigenous inhabitants of the Keningau District.^[97] The Gana Dusun were known by their previous name of Talinting Dusun since the tribe often hammered thecanang instrument in times of emergency, with thetalinting carrying the meaning of "emergency signal" sound produced by thecanangs.^[98] When the British protectorate government conducted a census within the area, the Talinting people were given the name"Gana" by the British since they inhabited a flat land area which was calledgana-gana in the local Dusun language.^[98] The Gana Dusuns lived within the villages of Baru, Kuangoh, Minansut, Liposu, Naidat and Tangkungon which are all located next to the sub-district or small township ofBingkor across the Tambunan-Keningau highway (or the Kota Kinabalu-Tenom) road.^[98] The Kujau Dusun are mostly concentrated on the highlands of Keningau within theCrocker Range on the western hills, above the Keningau Plains, from the villages of Ansip, Apin-Apin, Bunsit, Liawan, Linsosod, Pamalan as well as Tutumulud, once also fearlessly known for theirngayau (headhunting) practices.^[99][100] The Kujau Dusun were originally the Manindal Dusun tribe who lived on the hills of Keningau by growing rice, and they began to be called"Kuyou" (withered) in the local Dusun language due to adrought that happened around 1879.^[98] The local Bruneian Malays called themKujau, while the British spelt"Kuyou" asKwijau.^[98] Based on old folklore, when the Kujau tribe descended to the Bingkor valley, they were helped by the Gana people, who provided them with rice so the Kujau could obtain their own rice.^[98] The two tribes often helped each other in times of disaster or any difficulties, which brought about a bond of friendship.^[98] Another Dusun sub-ethnic group originating from the Tongod area in Sandakan Division of Sabah's east coast is the Minokok Dusun, with settlements around the villages of Batu Lunguyan, Kabatang Baru, Kipaliu, Mandagat and Sinaron, also in the Sook sub-district of Keningau.^[101] Many of the Minokok Dusun practise upland rice cultivation practices with four traditional upland rice varieties locally known asKembulaung,Lantai,Sepulut, andTesik.^[102]

From top to bottom: Kota Belud Dusun, Tindal Dusun ofKota Belud District, and a typical traditional house of the Tobilung Dusuns

In this district located in the northern part of Sabah'sWest Coast Division, there are two Dusun sub-tribes that are native to this district, namely the Tindal who are of Central Dusunic stock and also Tobilung, who are interrelated ethno-linguistically to theRungus ethnic group as well as the Kimaragang, Sonsogon and Sandayo tribes in neighbouring Kota Marudu district in Sabah's northernKudat Division. The Tindal Dusun dominates the Kota Belud district as its main settlement as the largest Dusun sub-ethnic with around 38,097 Tindals scattered across the district.^[103][104] Tindal Dusun community strongly adheres to traditional practices and beliefs of old customs they inherited from their ancestors, with each custom and belief practised being closely related to human life, the environment andcosmology.^[105] Traditional customs and beliefs are practised and well maintained by custom practitioners andvillage heads, with the latter playing a role in continuing traditional practices such as in wedding ceremonies and in the laws ofsogit (tribe punishment). Most of the younger generation of Tindal Dusun today have embraced both Christianity (mostlySidang Injil Borneo andSeventh-day Adventism with Anglican, Catholic,True Jesus Church as well as Lutheran/Basel minorities) and Islam (especially to those who intermarry Muslim Ranau Dusuns who settled in the border areas within the Ranau-Kota Belud highway as well as Muslim-majority ethnic groups such as theBajaus andIranuns).^[105]

The Tobilung Dusun is another main Dusun sub-group in Kota Belud and has its own belief system and practices, but today this tribe are mostly Christians belonging to theProtestant Church in Sabah, Sidang Injil Borneo and Seventh-day Adventist denominations (with Anglican as well as Catholic minorities).^[106][107] In ancient times, the Tobilung Dusun adhered to animism practices inherited from their ancestors with worldview and belief system of the Tobilung is greatly influenced by the environment andrineet,tinumaru is considered a God by the Tobilung sub-tribe as the protector of their tribe from evil forces where it live in anotherrealm known aslingkogung, which is in the seventh heaven.^[106] The Tobilung Dusun practices the spirit ofmitatabang (mutual cooperation) when doing work, especially when it comes to clearing fields for rice cultivation, such asrumilik (cutting down forests),mangasok (cutting down),gumamas (weeding),mongomot (harvesting),mongogik (threshing rice) andmirangkat (transporting). The practice ofmitatabang is also practised when preparing for weddings, building houses and in the event of a family loss.^[106]

The main Dusun sub-ethnic group inKota Marudu District is the Kimaragang Dusun (with numerous other tribes or sub-tribes such as Sonsogon, Tobilung and Sandayo), which is also one of the largest and oldest sub-ethnic groups within the Dusun group.^[108] Numbered around 120,000 in 2023, the Kimaragang community were divided into two main groups, namely those who inhabit the Kota Marudu-Tandek area and the Pitas-Koromoko area.^[109][110] They reside within Marudu Bay in villages such as Damai, Mosolog, Samparita, Salimandut, Tanjung Batu, Taritapan, Tingkalanon, Tondig, Tinogu and Ulu Bengkoka, neighbouringPitas in Dandun, Konibungan, Korumoko, Marasinsim and Salimpodon villages as well as the Malobang peninsula, working in agricultural, fisheries and animal husbandry activities, while there are also those who work as civil servants, in the private sector and in personal businesses.^[111] The Kimaragang Dusun community also practised themitatabang activities, such as in weddings, work, celebrations, crowds, and things that are difficult to do alone.^[111]

Belief-wise, most Kota Marudu Dusuns were formerly animist or practised Momolianism just like other Kadazan-Dusun tribes, but today are now mostly Christians (particularlySeventh-day Adventist, for this district has a majority adherence to the said church or Christian denomination with significant minorities belonging to other denominations such asSidang Injil Borneo (SIB), Roman Catholicism,Protestant Church in Sabah and so on) with a small number professing Islam owing to intermarriages with predominantly Muslim Ranau Dusuns (lncluding those who immigrated from neighbouring Ranau district as well as settled ones) particularly in the border villages of Gana, Garung, Kias, Lombiding, Mantub, Marak-Parak, Miniran, Monggis/Manggis, Mulut-Pulut, Poddi, Tandawahon, Serinsim, Surun-Surun, Talantang and Toguhu, as well as Muslim-majority ethnic groups such asBajaus andOrang Sungei.

The Gobukon Dusun sub-ethnic, which is ethno-linguistically related to other Central Dusunic tribes such as the Bundu-Liwan, Tagahas, Talantang, Tinagas and Tindal in districts such as Ranau, Tambunan, Keningau, Telupid, Beluran as well as Kota Belud including the city of Kota Kinabalu (in areas such as Manggatal, Inanam and Telipok) as well as fellow neighbouring tribes of Central Dusunic stock such as Garo and Luba native to this district, is also among the Dusun tribes with the smallest population in Sabah overall particularly in this district, mostly resides in Pinatau village. The word Gobuk in the Dusun language carries the meaning of a monkey; the Gobukon Dusun revered the primate as their deity in accordance with their own interpretation of theirMomolianist animistic beliefs.^[112] Another Dusun tribe that is found in Kota Marudu originating from the Central Dusunic group albeit little-known is the Lingkabau Dusun, which is in turn a sub-tribe of the Tinagas group or tribe inhabiting theSugut River delta on its border with theBeluran District in neighbouring Sandakan division.^[113]

The main Dusun sub-ethnic group in theKuala Penyu District as well as neighbouringBeaufort, both located in the southern part of Sabah is the Tatana where their culture is different from all Dusuns since it is similar toChinese culture but mixed with some traditional Dusun customs which are the only Dusun sub-ethnic group that celebratesLunar New Year as their main festival.^[114] The Tatana were originally pagan until the arrival of predominantly Hakka Chinese fromGuangdong of China to the area of Kuala Penyu around the 1870s throughout the British administration, which greatly influenced the cultural practices of the sub-ethnic group involved to this day.^[115][116]Kaamatan is also celebrated by these sub-tribes since it is a statewide public holiday festival celebrated annually by the whole Kadazan-Dusun ethnic group, with 94% of the Tatana community adhering to Christianity (mostly Roman Catholicism) including a significant Muslim minority owing to intermarriages with other ethnicities such as theBisayas,Bruneian Malays andKedayans, with some practising ancestral and Chinese beliefs inherited from their ancestors, albeit syncretised with Christianity (especially in its Roman Catholic form).^[117][118] The Tatana Dusun traditional house is called baloi. The animist-pagan Tatana Dusun still practise some traditional rituals to this day, where they believe that humans have guardian spirits known as Diwato, some of the rituals includeberasik,koduaan,manawak andmomiliu apart from themoginum ritual.^[119] Tatana Dusun is also known for their traditional dance ofSayau Moginum which originates from themoginum ritual, a special ceremony to summon the spirits of ancestors or deceased family members to attend a celebratory event.^[120][121]

Apart from the majority TangaahKadazans inPapar District, there is a minor Dusun sub-ethnic group called the Malapi Dusun whose language and ethnic identity is considered severely endangered (but most of them are also conversant in the TangaahCoastal Kadazan language owing to intermarriage as well as assimilation factors with the said majority tribe).^[122] The areas within Ulu Papar feature another two Dusun sub-ethnics, the Tuhawon (Liwan) and the Tagahas, who were previously rivals who fought for generations over territory and land issues until both swore to never wage wars against each other again by marking their oath with a permanent allegiance in the form of a stone.^[123] These communities feature a total of 1,000 Kadazan/Dusun villagers in nine villages of the Ulu Papar/Ulu Moyog region that straddles between the borders of Penampang and Papar district such as Buayan, Kalanggaan, Kionop, Longkogungan, Podos, Pongobonon, Terian, Tiku and Timpayasa (historically all part of the Ulu Papar region of Papar, but today geographically and administratively located in the Ulu Moyog area of neighbouring Penampang district owing to its proximity to Penampang rather than Papar).^[124][125]

Similar to neighbouring Papar,Penampang District is dominated mostly by the Tangaah Kadazans, with several Tuhawon and Tagahas Dusuns villages located within the Ulu Papar/Moyog area on its remote tripoint border area with neighbouring Tambunan as well as Papar district, although nowadays these tribes has since been assimilated with the majority coastal and riverine Tangaah Kadazans by means of language assimilation/shift as well as intermarriage, the Penampang Dusuns are actually linguistic-wise bilingual in both Coastal Kadazan as well as Central Dusun languages owing to some certain factors such as intermarriages by Central Dusuns from Kota Kinabalu city (Inanam, Manggatal and Telipok areas) as well as Tuaran district (Ulu Tuaran area in the sub-districts of Kiulu and Tamparuli) and also from districts such as Ranau, Tambunan, Kota Marudu, Kota Belud, Beluran, Keningau as well as Telupid (who emigrated as well as resided in the Ulu Moyog area alike) with the local interior Tangaah populace of mixed Tuhawon-Tagahas tribal descent as well as geographical reasons in which the Ulu Moyog/Papar region of this district borders with the neighbouring Tambunan district in Sabah's interior.^[125]

Liwan Dusun is the largest Dusun sub-ethnic group in Ranau District, where it is further divided into two Liwans, namely the Sarayo Liwan and Tanah Rata Liwan.^[126] The Sarayo Liwan sub-ethnic was firstly spread around Tagudon Lama village, then later in Waang, Kiwawoi, Sosondoton, Ratau, Tudan, Manantangah, Tambiau, Mohimboyon, Terolobou, Kibbas, Toboh Lama as well as Toboh Baru and its surrounding areas within theKundasang sub-district, with the earliest villages inhabited by this sub-ethnic in Tanah Rata (Ranau proper) are notably the villages of Kituntul, Marakau, Kokob, Matan, Libang, Tagudon Baru, Kimolohing, Sinarut, Tudangan as well as Kilimu.^[126] The Liwan are known for their traditional dances ofSumirid Modtomu especially to the Kundasang area of Ranau, which is deeply rooted in the agrarian lifestyle of the Liwan Dusun, particularly their rice cultivation practices. The dance movements inspired from theMongogik, a practice to manually separates rice grains from their stalks by stomping bare feet before the advent of modern rice machines. It was an essential process to preparing harvested rice which subsequently evolved into the symbolic movements that now characterise the traditional dance.^[127][128] The traditional dress for Liwan females in Ranau is theabaya.^[129]

The Tinagas Dusun tribe is usually found in Malinsau as well as surrounding villages, all located in the Ulu Sugut sub-district on its border with Beluran district in neighbouring Sandakan division of Sabah's East Coast.^[130] Another Dusun sub-ethnic, the Talantang Dusun is also the dominant tribe among the Dusuns in Ranau District where it has several sub-tribes that form clans and some have even formed new tribes when they migrated to neighbouring districts, such as the Tobilung Dusun and the Sukang Dusun.^[131] The Dusuns in Ranau District can be considered as more closely representative of the original Dusun stock than other Dusun sub-ethnics since the area in which they reside is the origin birthplace of the entire Dusun ethnic population, theNunuk Ragang.^[132] A significant portion or large majority of Ranau Dusuns had embraced Islam from animism, especially in the area of Kundasang (and to a lesser extent in villages such as Poring, Bongkud as well as Lohan located inTanah Rata or Ranau proper) owing to massIslamisation of this tribe from 1940 until 1976 particularly during the colonial as well asUnited Sabah National Organisation (USNO) rules,^{[133][134][135]} while a number also adhere strongly toChristianity (in which the largest single denomination amongst them would be theSIB church or formerly known as theBorneo Evangelical Mission (BEM),^[136] with minorities belonging to other denominations such as Roman Catholics,Anglicanism, Seventh-day Adventism,Lutheranism and other Christian branches).^{[107][137][138]}

InTambunan District, the Dusun sub-ethnics there are more generally grouped under "Tambunan Dusuns",^[139] where it was originally further divided into several more sub-ethnics such as the Tuhawon/Tuwawon Dusun, Tagahas Dusun, Tibabar Dusun, Bundu Dusun, Gunnah Dusun, Palupuh Dusun and Kohub Dusuns in the early 20th century, but only three sub-tribes, such as the Tuhawon (present-day Liwan),^[140] Tagahas and Tibabar, remain today.^[141][142] The Tambunan Dusuns associate their ancestors withNunuk Ragang, as revealed in the "Tambunan Dusun Origin Myth".^[143] Based on thefolklore that after leavingNunuk Ragang, the family broke up and went their separate ways and made ahut with each name based on the tree and location; they ended up building a settlement which is the origins of the seven Tambunan Dusun sub-tribes.^[144] Based on the research by Thomas Rhys Williams in 1965, he describes:

Prior to 1880s, the Tambunan valley was occupied, and appears to have served as a boundary zone and cockpit of head warfare for several local groups. After 1885, native police patrols under European officers of the NBCC established a tenuous form of order sufficient to allow initial settlement on the northern fringe of the plain, settlement of the valley floor along the eastward course of the Sunsuron River proceeds rapidly in the year 1900–1925. However, continued fears ofhead taking slowed settlement of the central and south portions of the Tambunan plain. Those areas, along the southward course of the Pegalan River, were not cleared ofprimary jungle until the mid 1930s'.^[139]

In the past, the Tuwawon and Tagahas Dusuns had carried on acivil war against themselves, withguerrilla warfare between the two causing the NBCC to take urgent measures when Mat Salleh, thewell-known rebel in North Borneo, allied himself with the Tagahas Dusuns to fight against the Tuwawon Dusuns in the 1890s.^[145] Through several campaigns led by the NBCC,^[146] which allied with the Tuwawon Dusuns, and the subsequent demise of Mat Salleh after being killed by NBCC forces,^[147] the British further consolidated the Dusun tribes' term to unite the Dusun sub-ethnics and to avoid further division among them.^[30] The majority of the Tambunan Dusuns are farmers, and most of them are engaged in planting paddy,fruit trees, vegetables and raising various animals, with the Tambunan town itself surrounded by terraced paddy fields and seventy picturesque villages.^[148] The Tuwawon mostly live in Kaingaran, Dabata, Karanaan, Monsourulung, Sungoi, Rompon, Madsangoh, Lotong, Kiawayan, Rantai (Apin-Apin Lama on its border with Keningau), Dalungan, Kirokot, Tinompok, Kipaku, Laab, Sukung, Piasau, Sintuong-Tuong, Kuyungon, Sandapak, Garas, Pahu, Tontolob, Kinabaan, Lubong, Mangkatai, Katagayan, Tikolod, Makatip, Galiung, Pupuluton, Mogong, Kusob, Moloson, Rugading, Monsok, Nambayan, Papar, Solibog, Patau, Tanaki, Sukung, Tampasak, Sunsuron, Tondulu, Lintuhun, Daar, Paliu and Ragkam villages, while the Tagahas live in Kapayan, Ranggom, Tombotuon, Minodung, Kituntul and Toboh villages and the Tibabar in Tibabar village.^{[148][additional citation(s) needed]} Another Dusun sub-ethnic group known as the Gunnah Dusun, are traditionally distributed in the central area of Tambunan district mainly in the villages of Gagaraon, Botung, Pomotodon, Nouduh, Molout and Timbou.^[149]

Ethnically and linguistically related to the other Dusun tribes of the Bundu-Liwan valleys of the Crocker Range, this sub-ethnic group are religiously Christians (most of them being Roman Catholics since the late 19th and early 20th centuries), owing to massChristianisation done by theMill Hill Missionaries in today'sDiocese of Keningau especially in their home district of Tambunan after converting their fellowKadazan kinsfolk inPenampang as well asPapar, both located in Sabah's West Coast and theArchdiocese of Kota Kinabalu into the said religion,^{[150][151][152]} with minorities of this tribe's Christian populace being Protestants belonging to churches such as SIB, Seventh-day Adventist and many more other denominations, whilst a large non-Christian minority populace of them being Muslims especially those resident in the border villages surrounding the neighbouring district of Ranau, owing to intermarriages and assimilation factors.^[137][153]

InTongod District, the main Dusun sub-ethnic group is the Minokok Dusun, with a population of 10,000 comprising 1,100 families in 2017.^[101] They reside around the villages of Kotodon, Linayukan, Maliau, Menanam, Namukon, Sanan, and Simpang Entilibon.^[101] The Minokoks in Kotodon Village are known for their traditionalpottery making.^[154] Another sub-branch of the Minokok known as "Minokok Tompizos" is one of the Dusun sub-ethnic groups that mostly inhabit the Tongod and neighbouring Keningau areas.^[155]

Another main sub-ethnic groups of the Dusuns is the Lotud, who reside in the Tuaran District (including Tamparuli sub-district and also Kiulu andTenghilan villages)^[156] as well as the suburb of Telipok within Sabah's capital city of Kota Kinabalu.^[157] Most of the Lotuds reside in the area located between the main road connecting Ranau District with Kota Belud District.^[156] Numbering around 20,000 people in 2022, the Lotud form the foundation of the Lotud customary law that is recognised by the Native Court of Sabah.^[157] The Lotud sub-ethnic group was synonymous with the word "Suang Lotud" and can be found in nearly 50 villages within the Tuaran district.^[158] The cultural foundation of the Lotud is based on the belief in the existence of the creatorKinorohingan orMinamangun.^[159] In 2021, the Lotuds were recognised as one of the 36th major indigenous ethnic groups in Sabah.^[158]

TheAdat or Custom of Lotud Dusuns'marriage processes is divided into 35 segments such asmodsuruhan (bilateral meeting),monunui (engagement),tinunui (wedding gift),popiodop (staying together),matod (wedding ceremony), andmirapou (welcoming ceremony).^[160] In the Lotud tribe's traditional society, parents usually determine their son's future partner. Before a formal relationship is established, themodsuruhan serves to deliver a message to engage the female through her family.^[160] The female's side will then respond with requests for a duration of days from the male's family before negotiations can be accepted; this period also allows the female's parents time to discuss with their daughter whether there are other males who have proposed or if she has already made up her mind.^[160] Many matters must be clearly communicated, such as the male's family tree, background, character, and capabilities, as well as evaluating the meaning of any dreams that occurred in the female's family. If the female's side has had a bad dream, "sogit mimpi" is performed for peace. According to traditionaladat, if the male has no appointed partner, he may be fined under "adat malu" by the female's family.^[160]

The Linangkit Cultural Village in Selupoh village of Tuaran district became the main cultural centre of the Lotuds.^[161] Apart from this centre, there are several other cultural associations established within the district, such as the Lotud Cultural Heritage Association in Tagas village.^[162] A traditional Lotud House decorated with various traditional indigenous musical instruments, coconut shells and bamboo cups is located in the Sawah/Damat villages of Tamparuli sub-district.^[163] In present days, most Lotuds adhere to Roman Catholicism due to the strong influence of Catholic missionaries among the Dusuns in the 19th century, while Islam is also practised by some Lotuds, especially those who intermarried with Muslim ethnic groups such as theBajaus who also reside in Tuaran district alongside this tribe.^[164] Before the arrival of both religions, animism was the predominant belief among the Lotuds.^[165] The animist-pagan Lotud believe that their God calledKinorohingan and his wife calledSuminundu (Umunsumundu) have created the customs of the Lotuds simultaneously with the creation of theheavens, theearth andtheir contents.^[166] Humans were created from a mixture ofrombituon muru-puru (cluster of sevenstars) andGarau Ngadau (centre of thesun) andkondingau skin (cinnamon bark).^[166]

(Left)Kadazan Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA) Compound, where various cultural activities of the Dusunic people together with theKadazan,Murut,Rungus,Lundayeh, andPaitan are being held annually during theKaamatan
(Right) Mural of Tobilung Dusun atwalai (traditional house) of the Tobilung

The culture of the Dusuns is deeply connected toagriculture, particularlyrice cultivation, with rituals and festivals such as the annualharvest festival ofKaamatan celebrated every year in the month of May to honouring the rice spirit ofBambaazon/Bambarayon.^{[80][81][167]} It is a one-month celebration from 1 to 31 May with 30 and 31 May are the main point for the state-level celebration that happens at the place of the yearlyKaamatan host inHongkod Koisaan ofPenampang District.^[168] The celebration is synonymous with abeauty pageants competition known asUnduk Ngadau (female) andBuvazoi Tavantang (male), a singing competition known asSugandoi,tamu (street market), both non-halal and halal food and beverages stalls, and handicraft arts and cultural performances in traditional houses.^[168][169] Historicallyanimist (Momolianism), the Dusuns hold beliefs in nature spirits and ancestral veneration, though many are nowChristians orMuslims.^[107] During the old days,Kaamatan was celebrated to give thanks to ancient gods and rice spirits for the bountiful harvesting to ensure continuous paddy yield for the next paddy plantation season.^[170] Although theKaamatan is still celebrated as an annual tradition, it is no longer celebrated for the purpose of meeting the demands of the ancestral spiritual traditions and customs but rather in honouring the customs and traditions of the ancestors. Present-day celebration is rather more symbolic as a reunion time with family and loved ones, where it is celebrated as per individual personal aspiration.^[171]

The Dusuns are known for their variety of traditional dishes based on each of the subgroups, with the cuisine infused with traditionalherbs commonly known among the community,^[172] and since the Dusuns are agriculturalists,oryza sativa (Asian cultivated rice or commonly calledparai among the Tambunan Dusuns) is astaple food for the indigenous community.^[173] Among the well known traditional foods of the Dusuns arelinopot (meal of cooked rice mashed with root vegetables and wrapped in adoringin ortarap leaf),^{[174][175][176]}hinava tongii (pickedSpanish mackerel combined with red chillies, shredded ginger, sliced shallots and drenched with lime juice),^[177]bosou ornoonsom (Pangi fruit pickled, popular among the Dusuns of Ranau astinamba),^[178]pinaasakan sada orsada pinarasakan (boiled stir-frymackerel scad fish, popular among Ranau, Kundasang, Bundu Tuhan, Beluran and Sandakan Dusuns),^[179]kinoring soup (meat of awild boar usually referred to by the locals assinalau bakas),^[180] andmanuklihing soup (rice wine chicken soup).^[181] Some of the well-known traditional drinks of the Dusuns aretapai,tumpung orsegantang,lihing,montoku, andbahar.^[182]

The Dusuns are also known by their bambangan pickle ornoonsom bambangan (Mangifera pajang, a brown wild mango grown in the jungle of Borneo),^[183][184] tuhau, also called noonsom tuhau (etlingera coccinea, a tangy wild ginger condiment served in dishes like pickled tuhau, popular among the Dusuns of Keningau, Ranau, and Tambunan),^[185][186] and noonsom sada (freshwater fish fermented with rice, salt, and the contents of the pangi fruit).^[178]Ambuyat is another staple of the Dusuns, where it is usually served withpinaasakan andbambangan.^[187]Losun, a wild springonions of Borneo is usually paired withlinopot andhinava oranchovies.^[188][189]Kombos rice, a traditional coconut rice dish from the Lotud Dusun of Tuaran, is a staple among the community households, while another dish with a similar name, theKombos tapai, is popular among the Dusuns of Kota Belud, including those from Labuk and Beluran.^[190][191] The Tatana Dusun of Kuala Penyu are known for their triangular-shaped tinimbu (also called tinimbuh) dumpling made from glutinous rice.^[192] Some mushrooms, such as the kodop (Schizophyllum commune), sawit or palm oil mushroom (Volvariella volvacea), tiram (Pleurotus spp.), korong (Auricularia spp.), and Marasmiellus species, were mostly consumed by the Dusuns and other indigenous people of Sabah as part of their daily diet.^[193]

A traditional tool used for producingmontoku, a type of rice wine of the Dusuns

Commercially producedlihing of Tambunan in a bottle

Therice wine of the Dusuns, both traditional and commercial

The Liwan Dusun are known for their whitelinabok (leaf rice),linatok do mundok (boiled cassava), andsoko om tuntui (boiled bamboo shoots and steamed banana flower), among others.^[194] The Tindal Dusun of Kota Belud are known for theirtombowtong kiningkinan (special herb dishes) andtaduk vegetable (araceae sheath) while the Kimaragang Dusun known for theirgisak orgisakan soup (cow or buffalo intestine soup) andtonsom (rice or old corn that is ground and fried without oil, or can also use cassava, fish and banana stems).^{[195][196][197]} An exotic food of the Dusuns known as butod (Rhynchophorus vulneratus) is commonly served during Dusun festivals, with recent modern infusions mixed with sushi and pizza served within Dusun restaurants and coffeehouse around Sabah.^[198] Apart from thebambangan, thetarap fruit (Artocarpus odoratissimus) are also the common fruit delicacy among the Dusuns people.^[187][199] The Dusuns are known for theirsup terjun (jumping soup) andgorouk soup (winter melon soup).

From top left, right, and bottom:Sira Lambung of the Tatana Dusun female, and a Lotud Dusun femaleUnduk Ngadau contestant during theKaamatan with traditionalgonob skirt andlinangkit pattern, ethnic attire drawing of various Dusun subgroups including related ethnic groups

The traditionalethnic attire of the Dusuns is varied according to each subgroup.^{[200][201][202]}Black colour are synonyms among the Dusuns, similarly to the Kadazans, Muruts, and Rungus.^[203][204] The Liwan, Tagahas, Tindal and Tobilung Dusuns are known for their practice of wearing asunduk orsinurundoi (veil) for female as a cover from sunlight, as a symbol of beauty and femininity during wedding ceremonies,^[205] and by thebobolian during ritual ceremonies.^[104] The Liwan traditional dress isgarung lapoi for males,^[206] although the fabric oflapoi may also be used by females, while for the latter,sinombiaka rombituon is the main female dress commonly used during various ethnic ceremonies, including during weddings, which is usually paired with thesunduk veil.^[207] The Tindal Dusun has a unique traditional clothing design, known assinuranga (male) andrinagang (female).^[103][208] Another traditional Tindal dress for the female is thesinipak,^[200] which is more synonymous among the Tindal Dusun who inhabit lower land areas, while therinagang is popular among those who live in hilly or upper land areas.^[105] Both are worn together with thesunduk and come in black colour with colourful patterns, decorations and motifs, with thesinipak also coming in a version for males.^{[209][210][211]} The Tobilung Dusun are known for their ethnic dress, such assinipakan/sinupakan orbangkad (male) andsinurangga linongkitan (female).

The Kimaragang Dusun traditional dress iskinaling with a black colour and colourfulsashes made of silver andrattan, especially for the Pitas-Koromoko Kimaragang, while the Kota Marudu-Tandek Kimaragang have theirlapoi andsinudot.^{[212][109][110]} It is also graced with a cap made of rattan orbamboo woven together with a long fabric to complement their traditional dress to make it more attractive and unique.^[212] The Lotud Dusun women were known for their traditional skirts below the knees named gonob, and the wordlotud in the Lotud dialect itself also carries the meaning of a knee which are believed to be derived from the Malay word oflutut.^[204][158] The traditional clothing of the Lotud community also symbolises their status, especially for women, with waist ornaments calledlilimbo; the red symbolises "single status", the black symbolises "married status", and the brown orrattan colour symbolises an "elderly women".^[213] The Lotud has three types of traditional clothing, namely clothing used bytantagas ormomolian (ritual leaders), clothing forsumayau (also known asmadsayau) dancers for performance dances and wedding clothing.^[214]Linangkitembroidery is a name given forgeometric motifs produced based on embroidery techniques with the design and decoration dominates thegonob andkuluwu decorations in Lotud traditional clothing.^[215] Thelinangkit patterns are characterised by geometric shapes dominated by triangles and squares, with the use of bright colours such as red, yellow, black, green and white to fill each of the geometric shapes formed into a variety of patterns.^[216] Several terms for patterns commonly embroidered by the Lotud community include thepiniutu (joined),linodi (connected),nabur-abur (scattered),olinsong sadur (watermelon seeds),kinuyung-kuyung (wavy),subor (additional decoration), andpiniating (repeated).^[216]

Clockwise from top right:Musala, handwoven of Tobilung Dusun,sirung which is the traditional hat of the Dusuns, andkaro which is the traditional necklace of Lotud Dusun

The Labuk Dusun are known forgosing (floral embroidery) andmongorinda les Labuk (Labuk crocheted lace), both of which are part of the traditional attire that forms theSabung Labuk (both male and female).^[217][218] Each embroidery detail and colour choice has its own meaning with the embroidery in the shape of the letter "V" from the waist to the shoulder level symboliseskopiiso ginavo (understanding and agreement that became the basis for the progress of the Labuk Dusun community).^[219] The colours of blue and green are different, which are calledotomou. The Sabung Labuk is further equipped with traditional accessories such askambot andsimpagot (belts),simbong (earrings),kalung (necklace), andgolong sulau (bracelet).^[219] The Minokok Dusun known for their 100 years "Morindon Naa'Vol'" dress, usually worn in important ceremonies such asmagavau,magandavai, weddings, and thanksgiving ceremonies. The dress woven using whitegapas (cotton thread), then dyed using natural dyes from plants calledtaum and decorated withgiring (bell),tipai (button), andramboi (bead).^[220] The Tatana Dusun are known by their traditional dress ofSira Lambung (female) andSira Dambia (male).^[221] The colour is black, and the clothes are long sleeves for both genders.^[115]

Various handicrafts produced by the Dusuns, including musical instrument

Varioustajau (pottery) of the Dusuns

TheBubu is used by the Dusuns to catchfishes

Various types of Dusun baskets based on different subgroups

Dusuns use natural materials as resources in the production of varioustinunturu (handicrafts), including bamboo, rattan,donax canniformis (bemban orlias),calabash, and wood.^{[222][223][224]} Some of the many handicrafts that are identified within the Dusun community arebarait/basung/wakid (traditional bag),^[208][225]sompoton (mouth organ),^[226] andgayang (parang machete).^[227] Before the advent of many of the present-day tools, many of the traditional tools were used in the daily lives of the indigenous Dusuns. The traditional basket bags are used to carry harvestedcrops from their farms, while the machetes are used as part of farming and hunting tools, as well as weapons in a series of civil wars among the Dusuns in the past, especially throughout the headhunting period. The traditional baskets were once used in the past by indigenous men to hold human heads that were being hunted, while the women carried very large baskets to fill with forest produce harvested in the fields.^[228] The indigenous Dusuns are also known for theirtajau (pottery), which in the past was used mainly ascoffins, apart from wedding and ritual ceremonies, such as by the Tindal Dusun of Kota Belud.^[229]

There are several traditional dances associated with the Dusuns based on different subgroups, such asmagarang of the Liwan Dusun of Tambunan District,^[230][231] andmodtomu sumirid (Kundasang Valley)^[127] andsumirid medtemu of the Liwan Dusun of Ranau District,^[128]sumirid lohobon of Gobukon Dusun of Kota Marudu District,^[232]botumban of Tagahas Dusun ofKiulu, Tuaran District,^[233] andpansok manamparai of Tagahas Dusun of Kota Marudu, Papar, and Penampang districts,^[234] thepinakang of Kimaragang Dusun of Kota Marudu and Pitas districts,^[235]sayau moginum andbakanjar of the Tatana Dusun of Kuala Penyu District,^[236][237]sumayau of the Lotud Dusun of Tuaran District,^[238]mongigol rinagang for the Tindal Dusun,^[239][240] andmanaradan andmongigol tobilung for Tobilung Dusun of Kota Belud, Kota Marudu and Kota Kinabalu districts,^[241][242] andmongigol mangalai for the Tinagas Dusun of Ranau, Telupid, Beluran, and Kota Marudu districts,^[243][244]magunatip of Kujau (Kwijau) Dusun,^[245]mansayau of Nabaai Dusun,^[246] andsumayau of Gana Dusun of Keningau District.^[247]sirid-sirid,sumirid orsirid karamazan of Minokok Tompizos Dusun of Tongod and Keningau districts,^[101] andmagalai labuk of Labuk Dusun of Beluran, Ranau, Sandakan and Telupid districts.^[248] The Kadazansumazau dance are generally referred to assumayau by the Dusuns.^[249] Among the Kimaragang Dusun, their traditional dance is calledmongigol (men) andmagandak (women) and the name of their music ispinakang with traditional instrument such astagung (agung in Murut)^[250] andgabang kayu (xylophone).^[251] The Tinagas Dusun are known for theirmongigol mangalai dance and variousgong instrument sounds such as theborotinduk,gouting,sontuk toomod andsolundoi.^[243][252]

Thesompoton andturali of the Dusuns are part of the mainmusical instruments of Sabah

The music of the Dusuns is usually orchestrated in the form of a band consisting of musicians using traditional musical instruments, such as thebamboo flute ofsompoton,^{[226][253][254]} thetogunggak,^[255] thegong,^[256] and thekulintangan.^[257] Musical instruments in Sabah are classified intochordophones (consisting ofgagayan orsundatang,^[258][259]tongkungon,^[260][261] and the Arabian-influencedgambus),aerophones (consisting ofbungkau,^[262][263]suling,^[264]turali ortuahi,^[265][266] andsompoton),idiophones (gong,kulintangan,togunggak, andturuding), andmembranophones (consisting ofgendang,kompang, ortontog).^[253] The most common musical instruments in Dusun ceremonies are thegong andkulintangan.^[96][259] Thegong beat usually varies by region and district based on each of the Dusun subgroups. Art music and dance from Kimaragang Dusun is different from the other Dusun sub-tribes because of its softer, melodic and harmonic melody. There are also classic literary names ofbo'or,rina'at andsunda'at with singing calledtabai insi andtodindot.^[267] The Tatana Dusun of Kuala Penyu District are known for their traditionalginda song, consisting of a total of 32ginda, which is one of the main traditional songs of the Tatana Dusun, apart frombadaup,bolibag,boluai,mibobogo, andnandong, that are used during ritual ceremonies to interact with supernatural beings.^[268] The Dusun ethnic music is currently being preserved and promoted through various methods, including the nurturing of younger generations with traditional instrument skills and the promotion of Dusun music on modern majormusic streaming platforms.^[269][270]

From clockwise:True Jesus Church inTamparuli of Tuaran District, St Joseph Chapel of Catholic Church,Menggatal of Kota Kinabalu District,Basel Church in Murok Village of Telupid District, andSeventh-day Adventist Church in Goshen Village of Kota Marudu District. Variousdenominations of different branches within the Dusun community's major religion ofChristianity.^[55]

Before the introduction ofAbrahamic religions among the Dusuns, they adhered to a form ofAnimist-Pagan religion ofMomolianism (Traditional North Bornean religions).^{[165][271][272]} TheGod of the indigenous Dusuns areMinamangun (Bundu-Liwan Dusun:Kinorohingan; Tangaah Kadazan:Kinoingan),^[273] with theMount Kinabalu (Gayo Ngaran) as theirsacred mountain as part of their cultural identity.^[272] Although a majority of the Dusuns have converted toChristianity and some toIslam, many still practise traditional rituals from their traditional beliefs.^[272][274] The arrival of Britishmissionaries in the 1880s toNorth Borneo, particularly the CatholicMill Hill Missionaries,^[150] led to significant religious and social change among the Dusuns, with the efforts resulting in a large majority of Dusuns converting toRoman Catholicism andProtestantism, which subsequently stimulated interest in community development through education and improved literacy.^[54] Various accounts and studies made by Christian missionaries until the 20th century provide important information about the indigenous Dusuns.^[275] The records by British researcher such asIvor Hugh Norman Evans and British North Borneo government officer such asGeorge Cathcart Woolley through his diaries, and variousmonographs and photographs provide most unbiased descriptions of the Dusuns.^{[275][276][277]} The Christian Dusuns also have their own translations of theBible named asBuuk Do Kinorohingan - Habar dot Osonong, produced by the ethnic Dusun itself and published by the Bible Society of Malaysia.^[278]

A significant number of Dusuns in the Ranau District, especially in Ratau Village,^[135] learnt Islam through a Muslim traditional healer from Java, Indonesia, who was not a preacher by profession,^[279] resulting in the converted Dusuns having their own view of Islam, which evolved from a gentle Dusun culture that subsequently created a harmonious bond with their fellow non-Muslim Dusun counterparts.^[279] The presence ofMuslim missionaries from the neighbouring country of Indonesia was massive throughout the USNO administrations, which resulted in the conversion of many Dusuns in the interior, apart from theirinterracial marriage with majority Muslim ethnic groups such as the Bajaus, Bisaya, and the Bruneian Malays.^{[133][134][280]} The Muslim Dusuns also have their own translations of theQuran produced by the Kadazan Dusun Murut Muslim Organisation (KDMRS Muslim).^[281] In the present day, the already harmonious religious relations among the Dusuns of Ranau District practised since the 1960s were, however, threatened by the more recent radical Islamic view from West Malaysia starting in the 2000s, under which the Ranau Dusuns' view of Islam is being labelled under the pretext of "distorted Islamic views",^{[279][282][283]} even though the teachings have become the key to harmonious relations between the local Christian-Muslim Dusuns community that has remained for a significant amount of time in the area.^{[279][284][285]} As a result, an official enactment law has been passed and gazetted by theSabah government since 2017 to immediately ban various deviant Islamic teachings that attempt to influence the region's residents with intolerant ideologies, to protect its indigenous community by preventing religiousradicalisation, as well as risingIslamophobia caused by the intolerant teachings of the deviant section.^{[286][287][288]}

The traditionalist Dusuns are also known for theirAdat, a local indigenouslaw fitted with thereligious value system that is part ofsocial life that has been recognised by the Native Court of Sabah,^[289][290] with aims to maintain peace with the indigenous, resolve conflicts, ease tensions, and impose compensation for any customary violations in Sabah.^[291][292] One such law that is part of the sogit (localAdat law) is thetagal (conservation system) [ms] system that is used by the indigenous Dusuns on their territory to conserve rivers and aquatic life by imposing fines on intruders, including to those outside of Dusun ethnics.^[291][293]

TheDusun dialect is the main language between the different Dusunic sub-ethnic which consisting furtherclassification between different Dusun subgroups.The Dusuns are distinguished from the Kadazans, especially through their "r", "w", and "y" dialect, whereas the Kadazans commonly use the "v", and "z" dialect.^{[58][294][295]} Some Dusun languages, such as the Kimaragang Dusun of northeastern Sabah, also share some closevowel harmony with the Timugon Murut of Tenom District, which is one of the dialects within the large grouping ofMurut languages, with both Dusunic and Murutic languages being closely related in vocabulary,phonological and grammatical similarities.^[296]

The use of the language has been declining due to the use of Malay by theMalaysian federal government and the use of English by missionaries, which was done through the method of language shift enforced by the work of both the colonial and federal governments.^[74] Several language preservation policies have been initiated by thegovernment of Sabah to prevent the continuous decline, which is also happening to other groups of indigenous languages of Sabah.^[297] In 2025, a proposal to expand the teaching of the Kadazan-Dusun languages subject in schools to include four other ethnic languages comprising the Tatana Dusun language of Kuala Penyu, Tangaa Kadazan of Penampang, Timugon Murut of Tenom and Lotud Dusun of Tuaran was submitted to the federal government of Malaysia.^[298] Some initiatives have also been taken by the Sabah Dusunic Language Preservation Association (KBDS) to teach the younger generations from an early age and revitalise the Dusunic language.^[299]

Being indigenous to Sabah and within the federation of Malaysia, the Dusun are conferred the same political, educational and economic rights as the predominantMalay population of Malaysia.^[91] The term ascribed to this is "Bumiputera" (fromSanskrit "bhumiputra"), aMalay word which translates to "sons of the land".^[300] Presently, the Dusun are associated with another similar indigenous tribe, theKadazan and various other indigenous peoples, under the blanket termKadazan-Dusun. This is officially recognised as the result of political machinations, specifically a resolution of the 5th KCA (Kadazan Cultural Association, which was then renamed toKadazan-Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA)) Delegates Conference held between 4 and 5 November 1989.^[66] It was decided as the best alternative approach to resolve the two identity crisis that had crippled and impeded the growth and development of the Kadazan-Dusun multi-ethnic community socio-culturally, economically and politically – ever since "Kadazan versus Dusun" sentiments were politicised in the early 1960s.^[67][301] Many consider their traditional geographical influences as the major difference between the two ethnic groups since the Kadazans are mainly inhabitants of the flat valleydeltas, conducive topaddy field farming, while Dusuns are traditionally inhabitants of the hilly and mountainous regions common to the interior of Sabah withterrace farming and known for theirhill rice.^{[302][303][304][305]}

• Bornean traditional tattooing
• Dayak people, another unifying term for Bornean indigenous people used in neighbouring Sarawak and Kalimantan
• Paitan people, another classification term for Bornean indigenous people used in northeastern Sabah for Paitanic-speaking peoples
• Kadazan Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA)

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