The transport connections, concentration of economic institutions and industrial tradition underlie Durrës's leading economic position in Albania. It is served by thePort of Durrës, one of the largest on the Adriatic Sea, which connects the city to other neighbouring countries. Its most considerable attraction is theAmphitheatre of Durrës that is included on theAlbanian tentative list for designation as aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. Once having a capacity for 20,000 people, it is the largest amphitheatre in theBalkan Peninsula.
Name
In antiquity, the city was known asEpidamnos (Ἐπίδαμνος) andDyrrhachion (Δυρράχιον) inclassical Greek and thenEpidamnus andDyrrachium inclassical Latin.Epidamnos is the older known of the two toponyms; it is widely considered to be ofIllyrian origin, as first proposed by linguistHans Krahe,[15] and is attested inThucydides (5th century BC),Aristotle (4th century BC), andPolybius (2nd century BC).[16] Etymologically,Epidamnos may be related toProto-Albanian *dami (cub, young animal, young bull) > dem (modern Albanian) as proposed by linguistEqrem Çabej.[17] Although the nameEpidamnos/Epidamnus was more commonly used among Ancient Greek authors, the coinage of the city only used the abbreviations for the nameDyrrhachion/Dyrrhachium.[18]Dyrrachium was chosen as the sole name of the city after theRoman Republic gained control of the region after theIllyrian Wars in 229 BC.[16] The Latin spelling of /y/ retained the form ofDoric Greek Dyrrhachion, which was pronounced as /Durrakhion/. This change of the name is already attested in classical literature. Titus Livius, at the end of the first century BC, writes inAb Urbe Condita Libri that at the time of the Illyrian Wars (roughly 200 years earlier), the city was not known as Dyrrachium, but as Epidamnus.Pomponius Mela, about 70 years later than Titus Livius, attributed the change of the name to the fact that the name Epidamnos reminded the Romans of the Latin worddamnum, which signified evil and bad luck;Pliny the Elder, who lived in the same period, repeated this explanation in his works. However, the Romans may have adopted the new name because it was already in more frequent use by citizens of the city.[19]
The nameDyrrhachion is usually explained as a Greek compound fromδυσ- 'bad' andῥαχία 'rocky shore, flood, roaring waves',[20] an explanation already hinted at in antiquity by Cassius Dio, who writes it referred to the difficulties of the rocky coastline,[21] while also reporting that other Roman authors linked it to the name of aneponymous heroDyrrachius. The mythological construction of the city's name was recorded byAppian (2nd century AD), who wrote that "the king of the barbarians of this country, Epidamnus, gave the name to the city. His daughter's son Dyrrachius, built a port near the town that he called Dyrrachium".Stephanus of Byzantium repeated this mythological construction in his work. It is unclear whether the two toponyms referred originally to different areas of the territory of the city or whether they referred to the same territory.[22] Classical literature indicates that they more probably referred to different neighbouring areas originally. Gradually, the name Epidamnus fell out of use, and Dyrrachium became the sole name for the city.[23] Archaeological research has shown that at the time of the foundation of Durrës, two distinct settlements existed on its territory. The first one is a hill site with no direct contact with the sea. It predates the colony and might represent the settlement that held the toponym known asEpidamnos in ancient literature. The hill site overlooks to its south the second site, which is the territory of the port of Durrës, where the colony was founded. Its location on a rocky shore struck by waves on all sides reflects the description of the toponym Dyrrhachion.[24] The distinction between these two districts of the city remained in place even much later. In the 19th century,Durrës proper was the district of the port, while the hill north of it was a separate settlement, Stani (Kodra e Stanit).[25]
The modern names of the city in Albanian (Durrës) and Italian (Durazzo,Italian pronunciation:[duˈrattso]) are derived fromDyrrachium/Dyrrachion. An intermediate,palatalized antecedent is found in the formDyrratio, attested in the early centuries AD. The palatalized /-tio/ ending probably represents a phonetic change in the way the inhabitants of the city pronounced its name.[26] The preservation of old Doric /u/ indicates that the modern name derives from populations to whom the toponym was known in its original Doric pronunciation.[27] By contrast, in Byzantine Greek, the name of the city is pronounced with the much later evolution of /u/ as /i/. The modern Italian name evolved in the sub-dialects that emerged fromColloquial Latin in northern Italy.[28] The modern Albanian name evolved independently from the parent language of Albanian around the same period of the post-Roman era in the first centuries AD, as the difference instress in the two toponyms (first syllable in Albanian, second in Italian) highlights.[26] InAromanian, the city is known asDurus.[29] During the 411-yearOttoman period, Durrës was known inOttoman Turkish asDırac (دراج); withfinal consonant devoicing, the name has evolved into modernTurkish asDıraç.[30] InVenetian, it is calledDurazo,[31] while in theSouth Slavic languages, the city is known asDrač (Cyrillic Драч).[32]
In English usage, the Italian formDurazzo used to be widespread, but the local Albanian nameDurrës has gradually replaced it in recent decades.[32]
History
Earliest period
The territory of Durrës was populated at least starting from theEneolithic and then, fromprotohistoric times, it was inhabited by Illyrian peoples.[33]
Though surviving remains are minimal,[34] Durrës is one of the oldest cities in Albania. In terms of mythology, the genealogy of the foundation of Dyrrhachium includes among the founders Illyrian men (the Illyrian king Epidamnos and his grandson Dyrrachos), Greek men (theCorinthian Falio, descendant of Heracles), heroes (Heracles who was given part of the lands) and gods (Poseidon, as father of Dyrrachos).[35][36]
Several ancient people held the site: the presence of theBrygi appears to be confirmed by several ancient writers, theIllyrianTaulantii (their arrival has been estimated to have happened not later than the 10th century BC), probably theLiburni who expanded southwards in the 9th century BC.[37][38][39] The city was founded by Greek colonists in 627 BC on the coast of the Taulantii.[13] According to ancient authors, the Greek colonists helped the Taulantii to expel Liburnians and mixed with the local population establishing the Greek element to the port.[38] A flourishing commercial centre emerged and the city grew rapidly.[40] The fact that about the 6th century BC the citizens of Epidamnus constructed a Doric-style treasury atOlympia confirms that the city was among the richest of theAncient Greek world. An ancient account describes Epidamnos as 'a great power and very populated' city.[41]
After 323 BC Epidamnus-Dyrrhachium was involved in the intervention in Illyria of the Macedonians underCassander, who clashed with the Illyrians underGlaukias. In 314 BC the Macedonian king seized the city but the garrison he established there was in turn besieged and driven out by the Illyrian king and theCorcyrans. In 312 BC, after another unsuccessful attack of Cassander in the region, the city came under the protection of Glaukias. Those events marked the end ofMacedonian presence on the Adriatic coast for almost one century.[42] The city probably came under the control ofPyrrhus of Epirus at the beginning of the 3rd century BC.[42] From about 280 BC the Illyrian kingMonunius, and his successorMytilos minted in Dyrrhachion silver and bronze coins respectively, bearing the king's name and the symbol of the city.[43] The fact that their coins were struck in the city mint of Dyrrhachion stresses that they exercised to some extent their authority over the city.[44]
Epidamnus came under the control of the IllyrianArdiaei underAgron, who fortified the city (c. 250–231 BC).[45] When theRomans defeated the Illyrians, they replaced the rule of queenTeuta with that ofDemetrius of Pharos, one of her generals.[46] He lost his kingdom, including Epidamnus, to the Romans in 219 BC at theSecond Illyrian War. In theThird Illyrian War Epidamnus was attacked byGentius but he was defeated by the Romans[47] at the same year.
ForCatullus, the city wasDurrachium Hadriae tabernam, "thetaberna of the Adriatic", one of the stopping places for a Roman traveling up theAdriatic, as Catullus had done himself in the sailing season of 56.[48]
After theIllyrian Wars with theRoman Republic in 229 BC ended in a decisive defeat for the Illyrians, the city passed to Roman rule, under which it was developed as a major military and naval base. The Romans preferred to use the nameDyrrachium (Greek: Δυρράχιον /Dyrrhachion) for the city. They considered the nameEpidamnos to be inauspicious because of its wholly coincidental similarities with the Latin worddamnum, meaning "loss" or "harm". The meaning ofDyrrachium ("bad spine" or "difficult ridge" in Greek) is unclear, but it has been suggested that it refers to the imposing cliffs near the city. During theGreat Roman Civil War in Illyria, theBattle of Dyrrachium was undertaken byJulius Caesar againstGnaeus Pompey. The battle was a victory for Pompey, but it preceded the more decisiveBattle of Pharsalus in Greece where Caesar won. Under Roman rule, Dyrrachium prospered; it became the western end of theVia Egnatia, the greatRoman road that led toThessalonica and on toConstantinople. Another lesser road led south to the city ofButhrotum, the modernButrint. The Roman emperorCaesar Augustus made the city a colony for veterans of hislegions following theBattle of Actium, proclaiming it acivitas libera (free town).
The Eastern Roman EmperorAnastasius I was born into anIllyrian family in Durrës.
Like much of the rest of theBalkans, Dyrrachium and the surroundingDyrraciensis provinciae suffered considerably frombarbarian incursions during theMigrations Period. It was besieged in 481 byTheodoric the Great, king of theOstrogoths, and in subsequent centuries had to fend off frequent attacks by theBulgarians. Unaffected by thefall of the Western Roman Empire, the city continued under theByzantine Empire as an important port and a major link between the Empire and western Europe. During the sixth century based on accounts ofProcopius, the city was mainly inhabited by a Greek population.[49]
The city and the surrounding coast became a Byzantine province, theTheme of Dyrrhachium, probably in the first decade of the 9th century.[50] Durrës became aChristian city quite early on; itsbishopric was created around 58 and was raised to the status of anarchbishopric in 449. It was also the seat of anOrthodoxmetropolitan bishop. The city remained in Byzantine hands until the late 10th century, when control passed toSamuel of Bulgaria, possibly through his marriage withAgatha, daughter of the local magnateJohn Chryselios. Samuel made his son-in-lawAshot Taronites, a Byzantine captive who had married his daughterMiroslava, governor of Durrës. In circa 1005, however, Ashot and Miroslava, with the connivance of Chryselios, fled toConstantinople, where they notified EmperorBasil II of their intention to surrender the city to him. Soon a Byzantine squadron underEustathios Daphnomeles arrived at Durrës, and the city returned to Byzantine rule.[51][52]
Durrës Castle was built by the ByzantineEmperor Anastasius I 491–518 CE, making the city one of the most fortified on theAdriatic. The walls were devastated by an earthquake in 1273 and were extensively repaired.
In the 11th–12th centuries, the city was important as a military stronghold and ametropolitan see rather than as a major economic center, and never recovered its late antique prosperity;Anna Komnene makes clear that medieval Dyrrhachium occupied only a portion of the ancient city.[50] In the 1070s, two of its governors,Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder andNikephoros Basilakes, led unsuccessful rebellions trying to seize the Byzantine throne.[50] Dyrrachium was lost in February 1082 whenAlexios I Komnenos was defeated by theNormans underRobert Guiscard and his sonBohemund in theBattle of Dyrrhachium. Byzantine control was restored a few years later, but the Normans under Bohemund returned to besiege it in 1107–08, and sacked it again in 1185 under KingWilliam II of Sicily.[50]
In the early 14th century, the city was ruled by a coalition of Anjous, Hungarians, and Albanians of the Thopia family. In 1317 or 1318, the area was taken by the Serbs and remained under their rule until the 1350s. At that time the Popes, supported by the Anjous, increased their diplomatic and political activity in the area, by using the Latin bishops, including the archbishop of Durrës. The city had been a religious center of Catholicism after the Anjou were installed in Durrës. In 1272, a Catholic archbishop was installed, and until the mid-14th century there were both Catholic and Orthodox archbishops of Durrës.[55]
Two Irish pilgrims who visited Albania on their way to Jerusalem in 1322, reported that Durrës was "inhabited by Latins, Greeks, perfidious Jews and barbaric Albanians".[56]
Under Ottoman rule, many of its inhabitants converted toIslam and manymosques were erected. The city was renamed Dırac (دراج) but did not prosper in the first two centuries of the Ottoman era; its importance declined greatly and it became a den ofpiracy. Following the establishment of Ottoman rule in 1501, the Durrës Jewish community experienced population growth.[54]
The city of Durrës in 1573Map of the coast in northern Durrës from Giuseppe Rosaccio in 1598
As a port, Durrës was of little importance to the Ottomans, who controlled the entire Albanian coast. The town's main significance rather lay inits strategic castle, which the Turks reinforced and improved upon, and its rich salt deposits. There were few permanent civilian settlements, and most of the population, including the localkadı, opted to live further inland, such as in the newly established town ofKavajë, 14 km south of Durrës. The Ottoman chroniclerEvliya Çelebi visited Durrës in 1670-71 and noted in hisSeyahatname that there were around 150 houses as well as a mosque named after SultanBayezid II.[58]
The city's economy began to recover from the late 17th century onwards, boosted by profits from the salt mines, which exported salt throughout the Balkan hinterland. According to diplomat and TurkologistFrançois Pouqueville, about 100 Turkish and Greek merchants lived in the city in 1699, exporting 3,000quintals (300 tons) of beeswax, 15,000 quintals (1,500 tons) of finished cloth, 15,000 pieces of fine leather, and 60-100 ships of wheat, barley, corn and millet to Venice every year despite an official prohibition from the central government in Constantinople.[59] France, England, the Netherlands, and Austria established their consulates in Durrës in 1700.
As Ottoman relations with Venice improved upon the conclusion of theOttoman-Venetian Wars, Durrës became a focal point of trade with the Republic of Venice, especially in grains and olive oil, as reported by the Venetian consul in the city in 1769. Mercantile relations with Venice were halted when the latter city was occupied by Napoleonic forces in 1797, bringing an end to the maritime republic. TheAustrian Empire and laterAustria-Hungary, via the port ofTrieste, then replaced Venice as Durrës's largest trading partner. According to contemporary statisticianFriedrich Wilhelm von Reden, total exports from Durrës reached 672,000 Austrianthalers each year, while imports amounted to 455,000 thalers.[60]
By the mid-19th century, its population was said to have been about 1,000 people living in some 200 households. In the late nineteenth century, Durrës contained 1,200 OrthodoxAromanians (130 families) who lived among the larger population of Muslim Albanians alongside a significant number of Catholic Albanians.[61] The decrepitude of Durrës was noted by foreign observers in the early 20th century, echoing comments made by the Ottoman cartographerPiri Reis almost 400 years before: "The walls are dilapidated; plane-trees grow on the gigantic ruins of its old Byzantine citadel; and its harbour, once equally commodious and safe, is gradually becoming silted up."[62]
Turn-of-the-century Durrës, in the last decades of Ottoman rule
During theTanzimat (reform) era, Durrës was separated from theSanjak of Elbasan and became a main administrative centre in the reorganisedİşkodra Vilayet before 1912; it had its ownsanjak, namely theSanjak of Durrës, which was established in 1880 within the vilayet. With the city's economic prosperity and upgrade in status, its demographic decline was also reversed. Many government buildings were built, as well as Western-style hotels and restaurants for private businesses. In 1892-1893 the population of thekaza of Durrës grew to about 4,781, consisting of 3,018 Muslims, 1,514 Orthodox, 201 Catholics, and 48 foreigners.
During theFirst World War, the city was occupied byItaly in 1915 and byAustria-Hungary in 1916–1918. On 29 December 1915,a Naval Battle was fought off Durazzo. On 2 October 1918, several allied shipsbombarded Durazzo and attacked the few Austrian ships in the harbour. Although civilians started to flee the city at the start of the bombardment, many casualties were inflicted on the innocent and neutral population. The Old City being adjacent to the harbour was largely destroyed, including theRoyal Palace of Durrës and other primary public buildings. It was captured by Italian troops on 16 October 1918. Restored to Albanian sovereignty, Durrës became the country's temporary capital between 1918 and March 1920. It experienced an economic boom due to Italian investments and developed into a major seaport under the rule of KingZog, with a modern harbour being constructed in 1927. It was at this time theRoyal Villa of Durrës was built by Zog as a summer palace, that still dominates the skyline from a hill close to the old city.
Royal villa in Durrës
An earthquake in 1926 damaged some of the city and the rebuilding that followed gave the city its more modern appearance. During the 1930s, theBank of Athens had a branch in the city.
Durrës (calledDurazzo again in Italian) and the rest of Albania wereoccupied in April 1939 and annexed to theKingdom of Italy until 1943, then occupied byNazi Germany untilautumn 1944. Durrës's strategic value as a seaport made it a high-profile military target for both sides. It was the site of theinitial Italian landings on 7 April 1939 (and was fiercely defended byMujo Ulqinaku) as well as the launch point for the ill-fatedItalian invasion of Greece. The city was heavily damaged byAllied bombing during the war and the port installations were blown up by retreating German soldiers in autumn 1944.
Street in DurrësSocialist realist statue of unknown soldier with a high rise in the background
TheCommunist regime ofEnver Hoxha rapidly rebuilt the city following the war, establishing a variety of heavy industries in the area and expanding the port. It became the terminus of Albania's firstrailway, begun in 1947 (Durrës–Tirana railway). In the late 1980s, the city was briefly renamed Durrës-Enver Hoxha. The city was and continues to remain the center of Albanian mass beach tourism.
Following the collapse of communist rule in 1990, Durrës became the focus of mass emigrations from Albania with ships being hijacked in the harbour and sailed at gunpoint to Italy. In one month alone, August 1991, over 20,000 people migrated to Italy in this fashion. Italy intervened militarily, putting the port area under its control, and the city became the center of theEuropean Community's "Operation Pelican", a food-aid program.
In 1997,Albania slid into anarchy following the collapse of a massivepyramid scheme which devastated the national economy. An Italian-led peacekeeping force was controversially deployed to Durrës and other Albanian cities to restore order, although there were widespread suggestions that the real purpose of "Operation Alba" was to prevent economic refugees continuing to use Albania's ports as a route to migrate to Italy.
Following the start of the 21st century, Durrës has been revitalized as many streets were repaved, while parks and façades experienced a face lift.
According to theKöppen climate classification, Durrës is classified under the periphery of thehot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) zone with an average annual temperature of 15.9 °C (60.6 °F).[68] Its climate is influenced by its proximity to the Adriatic Sea in the Mediterranean Sea and the hills in theWestern Lowlands in the hinterlands.[66] The summers are predominantly hot and dry, the winters relatively mild, and falls and springs mainly stable, in terms of precipitation and temperatures.[69] The mean monthly temperature ranges between 7.5 °C (45.5 °F) in winter to 23.8 °C (74.8 °F) in summer. The highest temperature of 39 °C (102 °F) was recorded on 14 August 1957. The lowest temperature of −6.2 °C (20.8 °F) was registered on 26 January 1954.[66] Durrës receives most of theprecipitation in winter months and less in summer months. The mean annual precipitation ranges between 1,000 millimetres (39 inches) and 1,273 millimetres (50.1 inches).[66]
Source 1: Meteomanz (Temperatures-precipitation-precip days-snow days 2011-2024),[70] Weather Atlas (Daylight-UV[71])
Source 2: Climate data (Humidity),[72] Weatherbase (dew point[73]), Weather2visit (sunshine[74])
Politics
Durrës is amunicipality governed by amayor–council system with the mayor of Durrës and the members of the Durrës Municipal Council being responsible for the administration of Durrës Municipality.[75] The mayor of Durrës is elected by its people to act as the executive officer of the municipality.[76] The Durrës Municipal Council is the legislative body of the municipality and is also a democratically elected institution, comprising 51 councillors since the latest municipal election.[76] Both, the mayor and members of the municipal council serve four-year terms without term limits.[76]
Economy
Its highly advantageous geographical location puts thePort of Durrës among the largest in theAdriatic andIonian seas.
Durrës is an important link toWestern Europe due to its port and its proximity to the Italian port cities, notably Bari, to which daily ferries run. As well as the dockyard, it also possesses an important shipyard and manufacturing industries, notably producing leather, plastic and tobacco products.
The southern coastal stretch of Golem is renowned for its traditional mass beach tourism having experienced uncontrolled urban development. The city's beaches are also a popular destination for many foreign and local tourists. In 2012, new water sanitation systems are being installed to eliminate sea water pollution. In contrast, the northern coastal stretch of Lalzit Bay is mostly unspoiled and set to become an elite tourism destination as a number of beach resorts are being built since 2009. Neighboring districts are known for the production of good wine and a variety of foodstuffs.
According to the World Bank, Durrës has made significant steps of starting a business in 2016. Durrës ranks ninth[77] among 22 cities inSoutheastern Europe before the capitalTirana,Belgrade, Serbia andSarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Transportation
SH2 betweenTirana and DurrësSH4 at Kavaja Rock along Golem beach resort area
Major roads and railways pass through the city of Durrës thank to its significant location and connect the northern part of the country to the south and the west with the east. Durrës is the starting point ofPan-European Corridor VIII, national roads SH2 and SH4, and serves as themain railway station of theAlbanian Railways (HSH).
ThePort of Durrës, in the south-west of the city, is one of the major ports of the Adriatic Sea and plays a very important role in the city's economy. The port is located on an artificial basin that is formed between two moles, with a west-northwesterly oriented entrance approximately wide as it passes between the ends of the moles. The port is also a key location for transit networks and passenger ferry, giving Durrës a strategic position with respect to thePan-European Corridor VIII. The port has experienced major upgrades in recent years culminating with the opening of the new terminal in July 2012. In 2012,The Globe and Mail ranked Durrës at no. 1 among 8 exciting new cruise ports to explore.[79] It is one of the largest passenger port on theAdriatic Sea that handle more than 1.5 million passengers per year.
Durrës is the second most populousmunicipality in Albania and one of the most populous on theAdriatic Sea with a growing number of inhabitants. According to the2011 census, the municipal unit of Durrës had an estimated population of 113,249 of whom 56,511 were men and 56,738 women.[8]
Islam was introduced to the city in the early 16th century during the Ottoman conquest. Much of the local population converted to Islam during the four centuries of Ottoman rule. The two most well-known mosques in the city are theGreat Mosque of Durrës (built in 1931 on the site of an earlier Ottoman mosque) and theFatih Mosque, erected in 1502 just one year after the city became part of the Ottoman Empire.
Anton Perko:Motif by the Durrës's coast (watercolor on paper – before 1905)
The theatrical and musical life of the city is centered on theAleksandër Moisiu Theatre, the Estrada Theatre, a puppet theatre, and the Philharmonic Orchestra. The annualInternational Film Summerfest of Durrës, founded in 2008, is held in late August or early September in the amphitheatre. In 2004 and 2009,Miss Globe International was held in Durrës.
The city is home to different architectural styles that represent influential periods in its history. The architecture is influenced by Illyrian, Greek, Roman and Italian architecture.[citation needed] In the 21st century, part of Durrës turned into a modernist city, with large blocks of flats, modern new buildings, new shopping centres and many green spaces.
Education
The Albanian College of Durrës
Durrës has a long tradition of education since the beginning of civil life from antiquity until today. After the fall of communism in Albania, a reorganization plan was announced in 1990, that would extend the compulsory education program from eight to ten years. The following year, major economic and political crisis in Albania, and the ensuing breakdown of public order, plunged the school system into chaos. Later, many schools were rebuilt or reconstructed, to improve learning conditions especially in larger cities of the country. Durrës is host to academic institutions such as theUniversity of Durrës, Albanian College of Durrës,Kajtazi Brothers Educational Institute, Gjergj Kastrioti High School, Naim Frashëri High School, sports mastery school Benardina Qerraxhiu and Jani Kukuzeli Artistic Lycée.
One of the city's main sights is the Byzantine city wall, also calledDurrës Castle, while the largestamphitheatre in the Balkans is close to the city's harbour. This fifth-century construction is currently under consideration for listing as aUNESCO World Heritage Site.[85]
Museums
Durrës is home to the largest archaeological museum in the country, theDurrës Archaeological Museum, located near the beach. North of the museum are the sixth-centuryByzantine walls constructed after theVisigoth invasion of 481. The bulk of the museum's collection comprises artefacts from the nearby ancient site of Dyrrhachium and includes an extensive collection from the Illyrian, Ancient Greek, Hellenistic and Roman periods. Items of major note include Roman funeral steles and stone sarcophagi, a colourful elliptical mosaic measuring 17 by 10 feet (5 m × 3 m), known asThe Beauty of Durrës, and a collection of miniature busts of Venus, testament to the time when Durrës was a centre of worship of the goddess. There are several other museums including theRoyal Villa of Durrës and the Museum of History (in the house of the actorAleksandër Moisiu).
^"Bashkia Durrës" (in Albanian). Albanian Association of Municipalities (AAM).Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved29 September 2021.
^Krahe, Hans (1964). "Vom Illyrischen zum Alteuropäischen".Indogermanische Forschungen.69: 202.
^Dio, Cassius (1916). "41:49".Roman History. Vol. IV. Loeb Classical Library. p. 85.Archived from the original on 20 January 2024. Retrieved19 February 2021.
^Bonnet, Guillaume (1998).Les mots latins de l'albanais (in French). Paris:L'Harmattan. p. 37.
^"Arumunët Albania, nr. 40".Arumunët Albania (in Albanian and Aromanian). No. 40. 2014. p. 15.Archived from the original on 29 August 2022. Retrieved29 August 2022.
^Sezen, Tahir (2017). "Osmanlı Yer Adları (Ottoman Place Names)" (Document) (in Turkish). Ankara:Directorate of State Archives. p. 217.
^A selection of modern travelers' accounts and references in ancient literature are given in P. Cabanes and F. Drini, eds,Inscription d'Épidamne-Dyrrhachion et d'Apollonia, vol. I (1995)
^abWilkes 1995, p. 111: In a later period the Bryges, returning from Phrygia, seized the city and surrounding territory, then the Taulantii, an Illyrian people, took it from them and the Liburni, another Illyrian people, took it from the Taulantii [...] Those expelled from Dyrrhachium by the Liburnians obtained help from the Corcyreans then masters of the sea and drove out the Liburni.
^Wilkes 1995, p. 161: "... Gulf of Kotor. The Romans decided that enough had been achieved and hostilities ceased. The consuls handed over Illyria to Demetrius and withdrew the fleet and army to Epidamnus, ..."
^John Drogo Montagu,Battles of the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Chronological Compendium of 667 Battles to 31BC (series Historians of the Ancient World (Greenhill Historic Series), 2000:47ISBN1-85367-389-7.
^M. Gwyn Morgan, "Catullus and the 'Annales Volusi'"Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica, New Series,4 (1980):59–67).
^Itinerarium Symonis Simeonis et Hugonis Illuminatoris ad Terram Sanctam, edited by J. Nasmith, 1778, cited in: Elsie Robert,The earliest references to the existence of the Albanian language. Zeitschrift für Balkanologie, Munich, 1991, v. 27.2, pp. 101–105. Available athttps://www.scribd.com/doc/87039/Earlies-Reference-to-the-Existance-of-the-Albanian-LanguageArchived 2011-02-07 at theWayback Machine "Inhabitatur enim Latinis, Grecis, Judeis perfidis, et barbaris Albanensibus" (Translation in R. Elsie: "For it is inhabited by Latins, Greeks, perfidious Jews and barbaric Albanians").
^Pouqueville, François Charles Hugues Laurent (1826).Voyage de la Grèce. Paris.
^von Reden, Friedrich Wilhelm (1856).Die Türkei und Griechenland etc. Frankfurt. p. 259.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Koukoudis, Asterios (2003).The Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora. Thessaloniki: Zitros Publications. p. 358.ISBN9789607760869.Archived from the original on 20 January 2024. Retrieved17 October 2020. "Durrës... At the end of the nineteenth century, there were more than 130 Vlach families, some 1,200 Vlachs, who constituted the nucleus of the local Greek Orthodox community, amid the much more numerous Moslem Albanians and quite a number of Roman Catholics, also of Albanian stock."
^Bogdanović, Dimitrije; Samardžić, Radovan (1990).Knjiga o Kosovu: razgovori o Kosovu. Književne novine. p. 208.ISBN9788639101947.Archived from the original on 20 January 2024. Retrieved2 August 2011.На освојеном подручју су одмах успостављене грађанске власти и албанска територија је Де Факто анектирана Србији : 29. новембра је основан драчки округ са четири среза (Драч, Љеш, Елбасан, Тирана)....On conquered territory of Albania was established civil government and territory of Albania was de facto annexed by Serbia: On November 29 was established Durrës County with four srez (Durrës, Lezha, Elbasan and Tirana)
^Antić, Čedomir (2 January 2010)."Kratko slavlje u Draču" [Short celebration in Durrës].Večernje novosti (in Serbian).Archived from the original on 9 November 2012. Retrieved5 August 2011.VeĆ u aprilu 1913. postalo je izvesno da je kraj "albanske operacije" blizu. Pod pritiskom flote velikih sila srpska vojska je napustila jadransko primorje. ...In April 1913 it became obvious that the "Albanian operation" is over. Under pressure of the fleet of Great Powers army of Serbia retreated from the Adriatic coast.
Šašel Kos, Marjeta (2002)."Pyrrhus and Illyrian Kingdom(s?)".Greek Influence Along the East Adriatic Coast. Knjiga Mediterana.26:101–119.ISBN9531631549.Archived from the original on 20 January 2024. Retrieved31 December 2020.
Sassi, Barbara (2018)."Sulle faglie il mito fondativo: i terremoti a Durrës (Durazzo, Albania) dall'Antichità al Medioevo"(PDF). In Cavalieri, Marco; Boschetti, Cristina (eds.).Multa per aequora. Il polisemico significato della moderna ricerca archeologica. Omaggio a Sara Santoro. Fervet Opus 4, Vol. 2, part VII: Archeologia dei Balcani (in Italian). Presses Universitaires de Louvain, with the support of Centre d'étude des Mondes antiques (CEMA) of the Université catholique de Louvain.ISBN978-2-87558-692-6.Archived from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved31 December 2020.
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