Хуэйзў (回族) 東干族 | |
|---|---|
 Teenage Dungan girls posing for a photoshoot in traditional costume inSortobe,Kazakhstan. | |
| Total population | |
| 175,782 | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Kyrgyzstan(2021 census) | 76,573[1] |
 Kazakhstan(2019 census) | 74,409[2] |
 Russia(2021 census) | 3,028[3] |
∟ Altai Krai | 207 (2010)[4] |
∟ Penza Oblast | 53 (2010)[4] |
∟ Moscow | 43 (2010)[4] |
∟ Saint Petersburg | 500 (2018)[4] |
∟ Lipetsk Oblast | 41 (2010)[4] |
∟ Saratov Oblast | 760 (2010)[4] |
 Tajikistan | 6,000[citation needed] |
 Mongolia | 5,300[citation needed] |
 Uzbekistan | 1,900[citation needed] |
 Ukraine | 133[5] |
| Languages | |
| Dungan orMandarin Chinese Secondary languages: | |
| Religion | |
| Sunni Islam | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Hui,Han | |
Dungan[a] is a term used in territories of the formerSoviet Union to refer to a group ofMuslim people ofHui origin.[6] Turkic-speaking peoples inXinjiang also sometimes refer to Hui Muslims as Dungans.[7] In both China and the former Soviet republics where they reside, however, members of this ethnic group call themselves Hui because Dungans are descendants of historical Hui groups that migrated toCentral Asia.
In the censuses of the countries of the former Soviet Union, the Dungans (enumerated separately from Chinese) are found inKazakhstan (36,900 according to the 1999 census),Kyrgyzstan (58,409 according to the 2009 census) andRussia (801 according to the2002 census).[8][9][3]
In theFerghana Valley, the first Dungans to appear inCentral Asia originated fromKuldja andKashgar, as slaves captured by raiders; they mostly served in private wealthy households. After the Russians conquered Central Asia in the late 19th century and abolished slavery, most female Dungan slaves remained where they had originally been held captive. Russian ethnographerVlaidimir Petrovich Nalivkin and his wife said that "women slaves almost all remained in place, because they either were married to workers and servants of their former owners or they were too young to begin an independent life".[10] Dungan women slaves were of low status and not regarded highly inBukhara.[11]
Turkic Muslim slave-raiders fromKhoqand did not distinguish between Hui Muslim and Han Chinese, enslaving Hui Muslims in violation of Islamic law.[12][13] During theAfaqi Khoja revolts Turkic MuslimKhojaJahangir Khoja led an invasion ofKashgar from theKokand Khanate and Jahangir's forces captured several hundredDungan Chinese Muslims (Tungan or Hui) who were taken toKokand.Tajiks bought two Chinese slaves fromShaanxi; they were enslaved for a year before being returned by the Tajik Beg Ku-bu-te to China.[14] All Dungans captured, both merchants and the 300 soldiers Janhangir captured in Kashgar, had theirqueues cut off when brought to Kokand and Central Asia as prisoners.[15][16][clarification needed] Many of the captives became slaves. Accounts of these slaves in Central Asia increased.[17][18] Thequeues were removed from Dungan Chinese Muslim prisoners and then sold or given away. Some of them escaped to Russian territory where they were repatriated back to China and the accounts of their captures were recorded in Chinese records.[19][20] The Russians record an incident where they rescued these Chinese Muslim merchants who escaped, after they were sold by Jahangir's Army in Central Asia and sent them back to China.[21]
The Dungan in the former Soviet republics are Hui who fled China in the aftermath of theHui Minorities' War (also known as the "Dungan Rebellion") in the 19th century. According to Rimsky-Korsakoff (1992), three separate groups of the Hui people fled to the Russian Empire across theTian Shan mountains during the exceptionally severe winter of 1877/78 after the end of the Hui Minorities' War:
The next wave of immigration followed in the early 1880s. In accordance with the terms of theTreaty of Saint Petersburg (1881), which required the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the UpperIli basin (theKulja area), the Dungan (Hui) andTaranchi (Uyghur) people of the region were allowed to opt to move to the Russian side of the border. Many chose to do so; according to Russian statistics, 4,682 Hui moved to the Russian Empire under the treaty. They migrated in many small groups between 1881 and 1883, settling in the village ofSokuluk some 30 km west ofBishkek, as well as in a number of locations between the Chinese border and Sokuluk, in southeasternKazakhstan and in northernKyrgyzstan.
| Dungan people | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese name | |||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 東干族 | ||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 东干族 | ||||||
| |||||||
| Dunganese name | |||||||
| Dungan | Хуэйзў Дунганзў | ||||||
| Xiao'erjing | حُوِ ذَو | ||||||
| Romanization | Huejzw | ||||||
| Hanzi | 回族 | ||||||
| Russian name | |||||||
| Russian | Дунгане | ||||||
In the Russian Empire, Soviet Union, and the post-Soviet states, the Dungans continue to refer to themselves as theHui people (Chinese:回族, Huízú; in Cyrillic Soviet Dungan spelling, xуэйзў).
The nameDungan is of obscure origin. One popular theory derives this word from Turkicdöñän ("one who turns"), which can be compared to Chinese回 (huí), which has a similar meaning. Another theory derives it from the Chinese 东甘 (Dong Gan), 'EasternGansu', the region to which many of the Dungan can trace their ancestry; however the charactergan (干) used in the name of the ethnic group is different from that used in the name of the province (甘).
The term "Dungan" ("Tonggan", "Donggan") has been used by Central AsianTurkic-and Tajik-speaking people to refer to Chinese-speaking Muslims for several centuries.Joseph Fletcher cites Turkic and Persian manuscripts related to the preaching of the 17th centuryKashgarianSufi masterMuhammad Yūsuf (or, possibly, his sonAfaq Khoja) inside theMing Empire (in today's Gansu and/orQinghai), where the Kashgarian preacher is told to have converted 'ulamā-yi Tunganiyyān (i.e., "Dunganulema") intoSufism.[24]
Presumably, it was from the Turkic languages that the term was borrowed into Russian (дунгане,dungane (pl.); дунганин,dunganin (sing.)) and Chinese (simplified Chinese:东干族;traditional Chinese:東干族;pinyin:Dōnggānzú), as well as to Western European languages.
In English and German, theethnonym "Dungan", in various spellings, has been attested as early as the 1830s, typically referring to the Hui people of Xinjiang. For example,James Prinsep in 1835 mentioned Muslim "Túngánis" in "Chinese Tartary".[25][26] In 1839,Karl Ernst von Baer in his German-language account of Russian Empire and adjacent Asian lands has a one-page account of Chinese-speaking Muslim "Dungani" or "Tungani", who visitedOrenburg in 1827 with a caravan from China; he also mentions "Tugean" as a spelling variant used by other authors.[27] R.M. Martin in 1847 mentions "Tungani" merchants inYarkand.[28]
The word (mostly in the form "Dungani" or "Tungani", sometimes "Dungens" or "Dungans") acquired some currency in English and other western languages when a number of books in the 1860-1870s discussed theDungan rebellion innorthwestern China. At the time, European and American authors applied the termTungani to the Hui people both in Xinjiang,[29]and inShaanxi and Gansu (which at the time included today'sNingxia andQinghai as well). Authors aware of the general picture of the spread ofIslam in China, viewed these "Tungani" as just one of the groups of China's Muslims.[30]
Marshall Broomhall, who has a chapter on "the Tungan Rebellion" in his 1910 book, introduces "the name Tungan or Dungan, by which the Muslims of these parts [i.e., NE China] are designated, as distinguished from the Chinese Buddhists who were spoken of as Kithay. The reference to "Khitay" shows that he was observing the two terms as used by Turkic speakers.[31] Broomhall's book also contains a translation of the report on Chinese Muslims by theOttoman writer named Abd-ul-Aziz. Abd-ul-Aziz divides the "Tungan people" into two branches: "the Tunagans of China proper" (including, apparently all Hui people in "China proper", as he also talks e.g. about the Tungans having 17 mosques in Beijing), and "The Tungans of Chinese and Russian Turkestan", who still looked and spoke Chinese, but had often also learned the"Turkish" language.[32]
Later authors continued to use the term Dungan (in various transcriptions) for, specifically, the Hui people of Xinjiang.For example,Owen Lattimore, writing c. 1940, maintains the terminological distinction between these two related groups: "T'ungkan" (i.e.Wade-Giles for "Dungan"), described by him as the descendants of the Gansu Hui people resettled in Xinjiang in 17–18th centuries, vs. e.g. "Gansu Moslems" or generic "Chinese Moslems".[33] The term (usually as "Tungans") continues to be used by many modern historians writing about the 19th centuryDungan Rebellion (e.g., byDenis C. Twitchett inThe Cambridge History of China,[34] by James A. Millward in his economic history of the region,[35] or byKim Ho-dong in his monograph[36]).
The Dungans themselves referred to Karakunuz (Russian:Каракунуз, sometimes Караконыз or Караконуз) as "Ingpan" (Chinese:營盤, Yingpan;Russian:Иньпан), which means 'a camp, an encampment'. In 1965, Karakunuz was renamedMasanchi (sometimes spelt as "Masanchin"), afterMagaza Masanchi or Masanchin (Dungan: Магәзы Масанчын;Chinese:馬三奇), a Dungan participant in theCommunist Revolution and a statesman of Soviet Kazakhstan.[37]
The following table summarizes location of Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, alternative names used for them, and their Dungan population as reported by Ma Tong (2003). The Cyrillic Dungan spelling of place names is as in the textbook by Sushanlo, Imazov (1988); the spelling of the name in Chinese characters is as in Ma Tong (2003).
| Village name (and alternatives) | Location (in present-day terms) | Foundation | Current Dungan population (from Ma Tang (2003)) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kazakhstan – total 48,000 (Ma Tang (2003)) or 36,900 (Kazakhstan Census of 1999) | |||
| Masanchi (Russian:Масанчи;Kazakh:Масаншы) or Masanchin (Russian: Масанчин;Cyrillic Dungan: Масанчын; 馬三成), prior to 1965 Karakunuz (Каракунуз, Караконыз). Traditional Dungan name is Ingpan (Cyrillic Dungan: Йинпан; Russian: Иньпан;Chinese:營盤, Yingpan) | (42°55′40″N75°18′00″E / 42.92778°N 75.30000°E /42.92778; 75.30000 (Masanchi))Korday District,Jambyl Region ofKazakhstan (8 km north ofTokmok,Kyrgyzstan) | Spring 1878. 3314 people fromShaanxi, led byBai Yanhu (白彦虎). | 7,000, current mayor: Iskhar Yusupovich Lou |
| Sortobe (Kazakh:Sortobe;Russian:Шортюбе, Shortyube;Dungan:Щёртюбе;Chinese:新渠, Xinqu) | (42°52′00″N75°15′15″E / 42.86667°N 75.25417°E /42.86667; 75.25417 (Sortobe))Korday District,Jambyl Region. On the northern bank of the riverChu opposite and a few km downstream from Tokmok; south of Masanchi (Karakunuz) | (Karakunuz group) | 9,000 |
| Zhalpak-tobe, (Kazakh:Жалпак-тобе;Chinese:加爾帕克秋白, Jiaerpakeqiubai) | Jambyl District,Jambyl Region; near Grodekovo, south ofTaraz | 3,000 | |
| Kyrgyzstan – total 50,000 (Ma Tang (2003) | |||
| Yrdyk (Kyrgyz:Ырдык;Dungan:Эрдэх;Chinese:二道溝, Erdaogou) | (42°27′30″N78°18′0″E / 42.45833°N 78.30000°E /42.45833; 78.30000 (Yrdyk))Jeti-Ögüz District ofIssyk-Kul Region; 15 km south-west fromKarakol. | Spring 1878. 1130 people, originally from Didaozhou (狄道州) in Gansu, led by Ma Yusu (馬郁素), a.k.a. Ah Yelaoren (阿爺老人). | 2,800 |
| Sokuluk (Kyrgyz:Сокулук; Dungan: Сохўлў;Chinese:梢葫蘆, Saohulu); may also include adjacent Aleksandrovka (Александровка) | Sokuluk District ofChüy Region; 30 km west ofBishkek | Some of those 4,628 Hui people who arrived in 1881–1883 from theIli Basin (Xinjiang) . | 12,000 |
| Milyanfan (Kyrgyz:Милянфан;Dungan:Милёнчуан;Chinese:米糧川, Miliangchuan) | Ysyk-Ata District ofChüy Region. Southern bank of theChu River, some 60 km west of Tokmok and about as much north-east of Bishkek. | (Karakunuz group (?)) | 10,000 |
| Ivanovka village (Kyrgyz:Ивановка;Chinese:伊萬諾夫卡) | Ysyk-Ata District ofChüy Region. Southern bank of theChu River, some 30 km west of Tokmok. | (Karakunuz group (?)) | 1,500 |
| Dungan community ofOsh (Kyrgyz:Ош;Chinese:奥什 or 敖什, Aoshe) | Osh Region | Spring 1878, 1000 people, originally fromTurpan in Xinjiang, led by Ma Daren, also known as Ma Da-lao-ye (馬大老爺) | 800 |
The position of the Kazakhstan villages within the administrative division ofJambyl Region, and the total population of each village can be found at the provincial statistics office web site.[38]
Besides the traditionally Dungan villages, many Dungan people live in the nearby cities, such as Bishkek,Tokmok,Karakol.
DuringWorld War II, some Dungans served in theRed Army, one of them who wasVanakhun Mansuza [ru] (Cyrillic Dungan: мансуза ванахун;traditional Chinese:曼苏茲(or子)·王阿洪;simplified Chinese:曼蘇茲·王阿洪;pinyin:Mànsūzī·Wángāhóng) a Dungan war "hero" who led a "mortar battery".[39]
Reportedly, Dungans were "stronglyanti-Japanese".[40] During the 1930s, aWhite Russian driver forNazi German agent Georg Vasel inXinjiang was afraid to meet Hui generalMa Zhongying, saying: "You know how the Tungans hate the Russians." Vasel passed the Russian driver off as a German.[41]
As Ding (2005) notes, "[t]he Dungan people derive from China's Hui people, and now live mainly in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Their population is about 110,000. This people have now developed a separate ethnicity outside China, yet they have close relations with the Hui people in culture, ethnic characteristics and ethnic identity." Today the Dungans play a role as cultural "shuttles" and economic mediators between Central Asia and the Chinese world.[42]Husei Daurov, the president of the Dungan center,[43] has succeeded in transforming cultural exchanges into commercial partnerships.[42]
In February 2020,a conflict broke out between ethnic Kazakhs and Dungans in the Korday area in Kazakhstan on the border to Kyrgyzstan. According to official Kazakh sources, 10 people were killed and many more were wounded. In the altercation, cars and homes were burned and rifles were fired. 600 people fled across the border to Kyrgyzstan.[44][45]
The Dungan language, which the Dungan people call the "Hui language" (Хуэйзў йүян/回族語言 orHuejzw jyian), is similar to theZhongyuan dialect of Mandarin Chinese, which is widely spoken in the south of Gansu and the west ofGuanzhong inShaanxi in China.
Like othervarieties of Chinese, Dungan is tonal. There are two main dialects, one with four tones and the other, considered standard, with three tones in the final position in words and four tones in the non-final position.
Some Dungan vocabulary may sound archaic to Chinese people. For example, they refer to a President as an "Emperor" (Хуаңды/皇帝,huan'g-di) and call government officesyamen (ямын/衙門,ya-min), a term for mandarins' offices in ancient China. Their language also contains many loanwords fromRussian,Arabic,Persian andTurkic. Since the 1940s, the language has been written inCyrillic script, though the language has historically also usedChinese characters andXiao'erjing (Arabic script used for Chinese), though these are now considered obsolete.
Dungan people are generallymultilingual. In addition to Dungan Chinese, more than two-thirds of the Dungan speakRussian and a small proportion can speakKyrgyz or other languages belonging to thetitular nationalities of the countries where they live.[46]
Nineteenth century explorerHenry Lansdell noted that the Dungan people abstained from spirits andopium, neither smoked nor tooksnuff and
"are of middle height, and inclined to be stout. They have high and prominent foreheads, thick and arched eyebrows, eyes rather sunken, fairly prominent cheek-bones, face oval, mouth of average size, lips thick, teeth normal, chin round, ears small and compressed, hair black and smooth, beard scanty and rough, skin smooth, neck strong, and extremities of average proportions. The characteristics of the Dungans are kindness, industry, and hospitality.
They engage in husbandry, horticulture, and trade. In domestic life parental authority is very strong. After the birth of a child the mother does not get up for fifteen days, and, without any particular feast, the child receives its name in the presence of amullah the day succeeding that of its birth. Circumcision takes place on the eighth, ninth, or tenth day. When a girl is married she receives adower. In sickness they have recourse to medicine and doctors, but never toexorcisms.
After death, the mullah and the aged assemble to recite prayers; the corpse is wrapped in white linen and then buried, but never burned. On returning from the interment the mullah and the elders partake of bread and meat. To saints they erect monuments like little mosques, for others simple hillocks. The widow may re-marry after 90 days, and on the third anniversary of the death a feast takes place."[47]
The Dungan are primarily farmers, growing rice and vegetables such as sugar beet. Many also raise dairy cattle. In addition, some are involved inopium production. The Dungan tend to beendogamous[citation needed].
The Dungan are well known for their hospitality and hold many ceremonies and banquets to preserve their culture. They have elaborate and colorful observances of birthdays, weddings, and funerals. In addition, schools have museums to preserve other parts of their culture, such as embroidery, traditional clothing, silver jewelry, paper cuts of animals and flowers and tools[citation needed].
The Dungan still practice elements of Chinese culture, in cuisine and attire, up to 1948 they also practicedfoot binding until the practice was banned by the Soviet government, and later the Chinese government.[48] The conservative Shaanxi Dungan cling more tightly to Chinese customs than the Gansu Dungan.[49]
The Dungans have retained Chinese traditions which have disappeared in modern China.Traditional marriage practices are still widespread with matchmakers, the marriages conducted by the Dungan are similar to Chinese marriages in the 19th century, hairstyles worn by women and attire date back to the Qing dynasty.[50]
Shaanxi female attire is still Chinese, though the rest of the Dungans dress in western attire. Chopsticks are used by Dungans.[51] The cuisine of the Dungan resembles northwestern Chinese cuisine.[52][53] However, being Muslims they do not consume pork, one of the most popular meats in Chinese cuisine, and meat is procured in accordance to beinghalal.
Around the late 19th century the bride price was between 240 and 400 rubles for Dungan women. Dungans have been known to take other women such as Kirghiz and Tatars as brides willingly, or kidnap Kirghiz girls.[54] Shaanxi Dungans are even conservative when marrying with other Dungans; they want only other Shaanxi Dungans marrying their daughters, while their sons are allowed to marry Gansu Dungan, Kirghiz, and Kazakh women. As recently as 1962, inter-ethnic marriage was reported to be anathema among Dungans.[55]
During theQing dynasty, the term Zhongyuanren (中原人; 'A person from theCentral Plains of China') was synonymous with being mainstream Chinese, especially referring toHan Chinese and Hui Muslims in Xinjiang or Central Asia.
For religious reasons, while Hui people do not consider themselves Han and are not Han Chinese, they consider themselves part of the wider Chinese race and refer to themselves as Zhongyuanren.[56] The Dungan people, descendants of Hui who fled to Central Asia, called themselves Zhongyuanren in addition to the standard labels Lao Huihui and Huizi.[57]
Zhongyuanren was used generally by Turkic Muslims to refer to Han and Hui Chinese people. When Central Asian invaders from Kokand invadedKashgar, in a letter the Kokandi commander criticizes the Kashgari Turkic Muslim Ishaq for allegedly not behaving like a Turkic-origin Muslim and wanting to be a Zhongyuanren.[58][59]
However, the authorities' control over Dungan mosques is less strict than over mosques used by Uighurs, a Turkic people mainly found in Xinjiang but also in Central Asian states. (The Dungans are a Chinese Muslim people also found in Central Asian states.)
khoqand raiders seizing chinese slaves in east turkistan failed to between hui muslims and han.
a trickle of chinese also reached turkistan well into the nineteenth century.
Right after Bi Yankhu's arrival, from 1878 until 1903, the village was called 'Karakunuz', meaning 'black beetle' in local Turkic languages. Dyer (1992) believes that this was a nickname given by local Turkic-speakers to Dungans, due to the fact that Dungan women liked to wear black at that time. In 1903 the name changed to 'Nikolaevka' (after the Russian Tsar) and it changed again in 1918, when the name 'Karakunuz' was again adopted, and did not change until 1964, when, as part of the rehabilitation of Magaza Masanchi, the village was renamed after him: 'Masanchi'. Besides these official names, Masanchi also has a Dungan name, Yinpan, which appears in the left image on the wall7.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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