Inpharmacology, a drug is a chemical substance, typically of known structure, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect.[2] Apharmaceutical drug, also called a medication or medicine, is a chemical substance used totreat, cure,prevent, ordiagnose adisease or to promotewell-being.[3] Traditionally drugs were obtained through extraction frommedicinal plants, but more recently also byorganic synthesis.[4] Pharmaceutical drugs may be used for a limited duration, or on a regular basis forchronic disorders.[3]
In English, the noun "drug" is thought to originate from Old French "drogue", possibly deriving from "droge (vate)" from Middle Dutch meaning "dry (barrels)", referring to medicinal plants preserved as dry matter in barrels.[13][14]
The term "drug" has become askunked term with negative connotation, being used as a synonym forillegal substances like cocaine or heroin or for drugs usedrecreationally. In other contexts the terms "drug" and "medicine" are used interchangeably.[18]
Efficacy
Drug action is highly specific and their effects may only be detected in certain individuals. For instance, the 10 highest-grossing drugs in the US may help only 4-25% of people.[19] Often, the activity of a drug depends on thegenotype of a patient. For example, Erbitux (cetuximab) increases the survival rate ofcolorectal cancer patients if they carry a particular mutation in theEGFR gene.[19] Some drugs are specifically approved for certain genotypes.Vemurafenib is such a case which is used formelanoma patients who carry a mutation in theBRAF gene.[19] The number of people who benefit from a drug determines if drug trials are worth carrying out, given that phase III trials may cost between $100 million and $700 million per drug. This is the motivation behindpersonalized medicine, that is, to develop drugs that are adapted to individual patients.[19]
Amedication ormedicine is adrug taken to cure or ameliorate any symptoms of anillness or medical condition. The use may also be aspreventive medicine that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms. Dispensing of medication is often regulated bygovernments into three categories—over-the-counter medications, which are available inpharmacies and supermarkets without special restrictions;behind-the-counter medicines, which are dispensed by apharmacist without needing a doctor's prescription, andprescription only medicines, which must be prescribed by a licensedmedical professional, usually aphysician.[20]
In the United Kingdom, behind-the-counter medicines are calledpharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist. These medications are designated by the letter P on the label.[21] The range of medicines available without a prescription varies from country to country. Medications are typically produced bypharmaceutical companies and are oftenpatented to give the developer exclusive rights to produce them. Those that are not patented (or with expired patents) are calledgeneric drugs since they can be produced by other companies without restrictions or licenses from the patent holder.[22]
Silene undulata is regarded by theXhosa people as a sacred plant and used as an entheogen. Its roots are traditionally used to induce vivid (and according to the Xhosa, prophetic)lucid dreams during the initiation process ofshamans, classifying it a naturally occurringoneirogen similar to the more well-known dream herbCalea ternifolia.[25]
Peyote, a small spinelesscactus, has been a major source of psychedelicmescaline and has probably been used byNative Americans for at least five thousand years.[26][27] Most mescaline is now obtained from a few species of columnar cacti in particular fromSan Pedro and not from the vulnerable peyote.[28]
Nootropics, also commonly referred to as "smart drugs", are drugs that are claimed to improve humancognitive abilities. Nootropics are used to improve memory, concentration, thought, mood, and learning. An increasingly used nootropic among students, also known as astudy drug, ismethylphenidate branded commonly asRitalin and used for the treatment ofattention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) andnarcolepsy.[31] At high doses methylphenidatecan become highly addictive.[32] Serious addiction can lead topsychosis,anxiety and heart problems, and the use of this drug is related to a rise in suicides, and overdoses. Evidence for use outside of student settings is limited but suggests that it is commonplace.[31][32] Intravenous use of methylphenidate can lead toemphysematous damage to the lungs, known asRitalin lung.[33]
Other drugs known asdesigner drugs are produced. An early example of what today would be labelled a 'designer drug' wasLSD, which was synthesised fromergot.[34] Other examples include analogs ofperformance-enhancing drugs such as designersteroids taken to improve physical capabilities; these are sometimes used (legally or not) for this purpose, often by professional athletes.[35] Other designer drugs mimic the effects of psychoactive drugs. Since the late 1990s there has been the identification of many of these synthesised drugs. In Japan and the United Kingdom this has spurred the addition of many designer drugs into a newer class of controlled substances known as atemporary class drug.
Recreational drug use is the use of a drug (legal, controlled, or illegal) with the primary intention ofaltering the state of consciousness through alteration of the central nervous system in order to create positive emotions and feelings. The hallucinogenLSD is a psychoactive drug commonly used as a recreational drug.[37]
Some national laws prohibit the use of different recreational drugs; medicinal drugs that have the potential for recreational use are often heavily regulated. However, there are many recreational drugs that arelegal in many jurisdictions and widely culturally accepted.Cannabis is the most commonly consumed controlled recreational drug in the world (as of 2012).[39] Its use in many countries is illegal but islegally used in several countries usually with the proviso that it can only be used for personal use. It can be used in theleaf form ofmarijuana(grass), or in the resin form ofhashish. Marijuana is a more mild form of cannabis than hashish.
There may be an age restriction on the consumption and purchase of legal recreational drugs. Some recreational drugs that are legal and accepted in many places includealcohol,tobacco,betel nut, andcaffeine products, and in some areas of the world the legal use of drugs such askhat is common.[40]
There are a number of legal intoxicants commonly calledlegal highs that are used recreationally. The most widely used of these is alcohol.
Abolus is the administration of a medication, drug or other compound that is given to raise its concentration in blood rapidly to an effective level, regardless of the route of administration
Numerous governmental offices in many countries deal with the control and supervision of drug manufacture and use, and the implementation of various drug laws. TheSingle Convention on Narcotic Drugs is an internationaltreaty brought about in 1961 to prohibit the use of narcotics save for those used inmedical research and treatment. In 1971, a second treaty theConvention on Psychotropic Substances had to be introduced to deal with newer recreational psychoactive and psychedelic drugs.
^Ritter, James M.; MacEwan, David; Flower, Rod; Robinson, Emma; Henderson, Graeme; Fullerton, James; Loke, Yoon Kong (2024). "What is pharmacology?".Rang and Dale's pharmacology (Tenth ed.). London New York Oxford: Elsevier.ISBN978-0323873956.
^H.P., Rang; M.M, Dale; J.M., Ritter; R.J., Flower; G., Henderson (2011). "What is Pharmacology".Rang & Dale's pharmacology (7 ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 1.ISBN978-0-7020-3471-8.a drug can be defined as a chemical substance of known structure, other than a nutrient of an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect
^abBergström, CA; Andersson, SB; Fagerberg, JH; Ragnarsson, G; Lindahl, A (16 June 2014). "Is the full potential of the biopharmaceutics classification system reached?".European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences.57:224–31.doi:10.1016/j.ejps.2013.09.010.PMID24075971.
^Tupper KW (2012). "Psychoactive substances and the English language: "Drugs," discourses, and public policy".Contemporary Drug Problems.39 (3):461–492.doi:10.1177/009145091203900306.S2CID55498558.
^Sobiecki, Jean-Francois (July 2012). "Psychoactive Spiritual Medicines and Healing Dynamics in the Initiation Process of Southern Bantu Diviners".Journal of Psychoactive Drugs.44 (3):216–223.doi:10.1080/02791072.2012.703101.PMID23061321.S2CID32876088.
^El-Seedi HR, De Smet PA, Beck O, Possnert G, Bruhn JG (October 2005). "Prehistoric peyote use: alkaloid analysis and radiocarbon dating of archaeological specimens of Lophophora from Texas".J Ethnopharmacol.101 (1–3):238–42.doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.04.022.PMID15990261.
^Teale P, Scarth J, Hudson S (2012). "Impact of the emergence of designer drugs upon sports doping testing".Bioanalysis.4 (1):71–88.doi:10.4155/bio.11.291.PMID22191595.
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