Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilization, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium BCE",[6] after which it branched into various Dravidian languages.[7] South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including pre-Telugu) split around the eleventh century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time.[8]
The origins of the Dravidians are a "very complex subject of research and debate".[9] They are regarded as indigenous to theIndian subcontinent,[10][11][12] but may have deeper pre-Neolithic roots fromWestern Asia, specifically from theIranian plateau.[13][14][15][16][17] Their origins are often viewed as being connected with theIndus Valley Civilisation,[9][17][18] hence people and language spread east and southwards after the demise of the Indus Valley Civilisation in the early second millennium BCE,[19][20] some propose not long before the arrival of Indo-Aryan speakers,[21] with whom they intensively interacted.[22] Some scholars have argued that the Dravidian languages may have been brought to India by migrations from the Iranian plateau in the fourth or third millennium BCE[23][24] or even earlier.[25][26] However, reconstructed proto-Dravidian vocabulary suggests that the family is indigenous to India.[27][28]
Genetically, the ancient Indus Valley people were composed of a primarily Iranian hunter-gatherers (or farmers) ancestry, with varying degrees of ancestry from local hunter-gatherer groups. The modern-day Dravidian-speakers are primarily composed of Ancient South Indian hunter-gatherer ancestry and varying levels of Indus Valley Civilisation ancestry, but also carry a small portion ofWestern Steppe Herder ancestry and may also have additional contributions from local hunter-gatherer groups.[29][30][31]
The third century BCE onwards saw the development of many great empires in South India likePandya,Chola,Chera,Pallava,Satavahana,Chalukya,Kakatiya andRashtrakuta. Medieval South Indian guilds and trading organisations like the "Ayyavole of Karnataka and Manigramam" played an important role in the Southeast Asia trade,[32] and thecultural Indianisation of the region.
Dravidian visual art is dominated bystylised temple architecture in major centres, and the production of images on stone and bronze sculptures. The sculpture dating from theChola period has become notable as a symbol ofHinduism. TheSri Ranganathaswamy Temple located in Indian state ofTamil Nadu is often considered as the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world. The temple is built in Dravidian style and occupies an area of 156 acres (631,000 m2).[33]
The origin of the Sanskrit worddrāviḍa isTamil.[34] InPrakrit, words such as "Damela", "Dameda", "Dhamila" and "Damila", which later evolved from "Tamila", could have been used to denote an ethnic identity.[35] In the Sanskrit tradition, the worddrāviḍa was also used to denote the geographical region of South India.[36] Epigraphic evidence of an ethnic group termed as such is found in ancient India and Sri Lanka where a number of inscriptions have come to light datable from the 2nd century BCE mentioningDamela orDameda persons.[35] TheHathigumpha inscription of theKalinga rulerKharavela refers to aT(ra)mira samghata (Confederacy of Tamil rulers) dated to 150 BCE. It also mentions that the league of Tamil kingdoms had been in existence for 113 years by that time.[35] InAmaravati in present-dayAndhra Pradesh there is an inscription referring to aDhamila-vaniya (Tamil trader) datable to the 3rd century CE.[35] Another inscription of about the same time inNagarjunakonda seems to refer to aDamila. A third inscription inKanheri Caves refers to aDhamila-gharini (Tamil householder). In theBuddhistJataka story known asAkiti Jataka there is a mention toDamila-rattha (Tamil dynasty).
While the English wordDravidian was first employed byRobert Caldwell in his book of comparative Dravidian grammar based on the usage of the Sanskrit worddrāviḍa in the workTantravārttika byKumārila Bhaṭṭa,[36] the worddrāviḍa in Sanskrit has been historically used to denote geographical regions of southern India as whole. Some theories concern the direction of derivation betweentamiḻ anddrāviḍa; such linguists as Zvelebil assert that the direction is fromtamiḻ todrāviḍa.[37]
Kannadigas are native toKarnataka inIndia but a considerable population is also found in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Kerala.
Malayalis are native to Kerala and Lakshadweep, but are also found in Puducherry and parts of Tamil Nadu. They are also found in large numbers in Middle East countries, the Americas and Australia.
Tuluvas are found in coastal Karnataka and Northern Kerala (Kasaragodu district) inIndia. A state namedTulu Nadu was proposed to represent them inIndia.
The Dravidian language family is one of the oldest in the world. Six languages are currently recognized by India as Classical languages and four of them are Dravidian languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam.
The most commonly spoken Dravidian languages areTelugu (తెలుగు),Tamil (தமிழ்),Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ),Malayalam (മലയാളം),Brahui (براہوئی),Tulu (തുളു),Gondi andCoorg. There are three subgroups within the Dravidian language family: North Dravidian, Central Dravidian, and South Dravidian, matching for the most part the corresponding regions in the Indian subcontinent.
Dravidian grammatical impact on the structure and syntax of Indo-Aryan languages is considered far greater than the Indo-Aryan grammatical impact on Dravidian. Some linguists explain this anomaly by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan and New Indo-Aryan were built on a Dravidiansubstratum.[45] There are also hundreds of Dravidian loanwords in Indo-Aryan languages, and vice versa.
According to David McAlpin and hisElamo-Dravidian hypothesis, the Dravidian languages were brought to India by immigration into India fromElam, located in present-day southwesternIran.[46][47] In the 1990s, Renfrew and Cavalli-Sforza have also argued that Proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent,[13][48][49][note 1] but more recently Heggerty and Renfrew noted that "McAlpin's analysis of the language data, and thus his claims, remain far from orthodoxy", adding that Fuller finds no relation of Dravidian language with other languages, and thus assumes it to be native to India.[50] Renfrew and Bahn conclude that several scenarios are compatible with the data, and that "the linguistic jury is still very much out."[50]
As aproto-language, theProto-Dravidian language is not itself attested in the historical record. Its modern conception is based solely on reconstruction. It is suggested that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started disintegrating into various branches around 3rd millennium BCE.[7] According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilisation, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium."[6] Krishnamurti further states that South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including pre-Telugu) split around the eleventh century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time.[8]
The origins of the Dravidians are a "very complex subject of research and debate".[9] They are regarded as indigenous to theIndian subcontinent,[10][11][12] but may have deeper pre-Neolithic roots fromWestern Asia, specifically from theIranian plateau.[13][14][15][16][17] Their origins are often viewed as being connected with theIndus Valley Civilisation,[9][17][18] hence people and language spread east and southwards after the demise of the Indus Valley Civilisation in the early second millennium BCE,[19][20] some propose not long before the arrival of Indo-Aryan speakers,[21] with whom they intensively interacted.[22] Though some scholars have argued that the Dravidian languages may have been brought to India by migrations from the Iranian plateau in the fourth or third millennium BCE[23][24] or even earlier,[25][26] reconstructed proto-Dravidian vocabulary suggests that the family is indigenous to India.[27][28]
Genetically, the ancient Indus Valley people were composed of a primarily Iranian hunter-gatherers (or farmers) ancestry, with varying degrees of ancestry from local hunter-gatherer groups. The modern-day Dravidian-speakers display a similar genetic makeup, but also carry a small portion ofWestern Steppe Herder ancestry and may also have additional contributions from local hunter-gatherer groups.[29][30][51]
Although in modern times speakers of variousDravidian languages have mainly occupied the southern portion of India, Dravidian speakers must have been widespread throughout the Indian subcontinent before theIndo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent.[52] According to Horen Tudu, "many academic researchers have attempted to connect the Dravidians with the remnants of the greatIndus Valley civilisation, located in Northwestern India... but [i]t is mere speculation that the Dravidians are the ensuing post–Indus Valley settlement of refugees into South and Central India."[53] The most noteworthy scholar making such claims isAsko Parpola,[17] who did extensive research on the IVC-scripts.[17][18] TheBrahui population ofBalochistan inPakistan has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of arelict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages.[54]
Asko Parpola, who regards the Harappans to have been Dravidian, notes thatMehrgarh (7000–2500 BCE), to the west of theIndus River valley,[55] is a precursor of the Indus Valley Civilisation, whose inhabitants migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation.[16] It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding inSouth Asia.[56][57] According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between theNeolithic andChalcolithic (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the Chalcolithic population did not descend from the Neolithic population of Mehrgarh,[58] which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow".[58] They further noted that "the direct lineal descendants of the Neolithic inhabitants of Mehrgarh are to be found to the south and the east of Mehrgarh, in northwestern India and the western edge of the Deccan plateau", with Neolithic Mehrgarh showing greater affinity with chalocolithicInamgaon, south of Mehrgarh, than with Chalcolithic Mehrgarh.[58]
ThePashupati seal from the Indus Valley Civilization
Dravidian identification
TheIndus Valley Civilisation (2,600–1,900 BCE) located in the northwest of theIndian subcontinent is sometimes identified as having been Dravidian.[59][60] Already in 1924, when announcing the discovery of the IVC,John Marshall stated that (one of) the language(s) may have been Dravidic.[61] Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchersHenry Heras,Kamil Zvelebil,Asko Parpola andIravatham Mahadevan as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation.[62][63] The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e. post-dating Harappan decline) stonecelt allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification.[64][65]
Yuri Knorozov surmised that the symbols represent alogosyllabic script and suggested, based on computer analysis, an agglutinativeDravidian language as the most likely candidate for the underlying language.[66] Knorozov's suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption.[67]
Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language are "most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family".[68] Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the "fish" sign with the Dravidian word for fish, "min") but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive description of Parpola's work until 1994 is given in his bookDeciphering the Indus Script.[69]
Decline, migration and Dravidianization
Paleoclimatologists believe the fall of the Indus Valley Civilisation and eastward migration during the late Harappan period was due to climate change in the region, with a 200-year long drought being the major factor.[70][71][72] The Indus Valley Civilisation seemed to slowly lose their urban cohesion, and their cities were gradually abandoned during the late Harappan period, followed by eastward migrations before the Indo-Aryan migration into the Indian subcontinent.[70]
The process of post-Harappan/Dravidian influences on southern India has tentatively been called "Dravidianization",[73] and is reflected in the post-Harappan mixture of IVC and Ancient Ancestral South Indian people.[74] Yet, according to Krishnamurti, Dravidian languages may have reached south India before Indo-Aryan migrations.[52]
Dravidian and Indo-Aryan interactions
Dravidian substrate
The Dravidian language influenced the Indo-Aryan languages. Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (eitherphonological or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages.[52] Many of these features are already present in the oldest knownIndo-Aryan language, the language of theRigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. The linguistic evidence for Dravidian impact grows stronger as we move from the Samhitas down through the later Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature.[75] This represents an early religious and cultural fusion[76][note 2] or synthesis[78] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans.[77][79][80][81]
According to Mallory there are an estimated thirty to forty Dravidian loanwords inRig Veda.[82] Some of those for which Dravidian etymologies are certain includeಕುಲಾಯkulāya "nest",ಕುಲ್ಫkulpha "ankle",ದಂಡdaṇḍa "stick",ಕುಲkūla "slope",ಬಿಲbila "hollow",ಖಲkhala "threshing floor".[83] While J. Bloch andM. Witzel believe that the Indo-Aryans moved into an already Dravidian-speaking area after the oldest parts of theRig Veda were already composed.[84]
According to Thomason and Kaufman, there is strong evidence that Dravidian influencedIndic through "shift", that is, native Dravidian speakers learning and adopting Indic languages.[85] According to Erdosy, the most plausible explanation for the presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned.Erdosy (1995:18) Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once. Early Dravidian influence accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed.[86] According to Zvelebil, "several scholars have demonstrated that pre-Indo-Aryan and pre-Dravidian bilingualism in India provided conditions for the far-reaching influence of Dravidian on the Indo-Aryan tongues in the spheres of phonology, syntax and vocabulary."[87]
Sanskritization
With the rise of theKuru kingdom a process ofSanskritization started which influenced all of India, with the populations of the north of the Indian subcontinent predominantly speaking the Indo-Aryan languages.[88]
Medieval Tamil guilds and trading organisations like the Ayyavole andManigramam played an important role in the southeast Asia trade.[32] Traders and religious leaders travelled to southeast Asia and played an important role in thecultural Indianisation of the region. Locally developed scripts such asGrantha andPallava script induced the development of many native scripts such asKhmer,JavaneseKawi,Baybayin, andThai.
Portuguese explorers like Vasco de Gama were motivated to expand mainly for the spice markets of Calicut (today called Kozhikode) in modern-day Kerala. This led to the establishment of a series of Portuguese colonies along the western coasts of Karnataka and Kerala, including Mangalore. During this time Portuguese Jesuit priests also arrived and converted a small number of people in modern Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu to Catholicism, most notably the Paravars.
Ancient Dravidian religion constituted of ananimistic and non-Vedic form of religion which may have influenced theĀgamas, Vedic and non-Vedic texts[89] which post-date the Vedic texts.[90] TheAgamas areTamil andSanskritscriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation ofmurti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[91] The worship ofvillage deities, as well as sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is recognised as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.[92] Hinduism can be regarded as a religious and cultural fusion[76][note 2] or synthesis[78] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, and other local elements.[77][79][80][81]
Ancient Tamil grammatical worksTolkappiyam, the ten anthologiesPattuppāṭṭu, and the eight anthologiesEṭṭuttokai shed light on early ancient Dravidian religion.Murugan (also known as Seyyon) was glorified asthe red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent, asthe favoured god of the Tamils.[93]Sivan was also seen as the supreme God.[93] Early iconography ofMurugan[94] andSivan[95][96][97] and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to the Indus Valley Civilisation.[98][99] TheSangam landscape was classified into five categories,thinais, based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam mentions that each of thesethinai had an associated deity such as Seyyon inKurinji (hills),Thirumaal inMullai (forests), andKotravai inMarutham (plains), andWanji-ko in theNeithal (coasts and seas). Other gods mentioned wereMayyon andVaali, now identified with Krishna and Balarama, who are all major deities in Hinduism today. This represents an early religious and cultural fusion[76][note 2] or synthesis[78] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora and fauna that went on to influence and shape Indian civilisation.[79][77][80][81]
ThroughoutTamilakam, a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance.[100] The king was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a "koyil", which means the "residence of a god". The Modern Tamil word for temple iskoil (Tamil:கோயில்). Ritual worship was also given to kings.[101][102] Modern words for god like "kō" (Tamil:கோ "king"), "iṟai" (இறை "emperor") and "āṇḍavar" (ஆண்டவன் "conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage ofShiva to Queen Mīnātchi who ruledMadurai orWanji-ko, a god who later merged intoIndra.[103] Tolkappiyar refers to theThree Crowned Kings as the "Three Glorified by Heaven", (Tamil: வாண்புகழ் மூவர்,Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar).[104] In Dravidian-speaking South India, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.[105]
The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one, and were typically associated withShaktism.[106] The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appears predominantly as a goddess.[107] In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.[108]
Among the early Dravidians, the practice of erecting memorial stones,Natukal and Viragal, had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about the 16th century.[109] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship thesehero stones to bless them with victory.[110]
Nataraja, example ofChola Empire bronze has become notable as a symbol ofHinduism.Typical layout of Dravidian temple architecture, 9th century A.D
Mayamata andManasara shilpa texts estimated to be in circulation by the 5th to 7th century AD, are guidebooks on the Dravidian style ofVastu Shastra design, construction, sculpture and joinery technique.[111][112]Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India.[111][113] In north India,Brihat-samhita byVarāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from the 6th century describing the design and construction ofNagara-style Hindu temples.[114][115][116] Traditional Dravidian architecture and symbolism are also based on Agamas. The Agamas are non-Vedic in origin[89] and have been dated either as post-Vedic texts[90] or as pre-Vedic compositions.[117] TheAgamas are a collection of Tamil andSanskritscriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation ofmurti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[91]
Chola-style temples consist almost invariably of the three following parts, arranged in differing manners, but differing in themselves only according to the age in which they were executed:[118]
The porches orMantapas, which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell.
Gate-pyramids,Gopuras, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples. Gopuras are very common in Dravidian temples.
Pillared halls (Chaultris orChawadis) are used for many purposes and are the invariable accompaniments of these temples.
Besides these, a south Indian temple usually has a tank called theKalyani orPushkarni – to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests – dwellings for all the grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience.[118]
Literary evidence of traditional form of theatre, dance and music dates back to the 3rd century BCE.[119] Ancient literary works, such as theCilappatikaram, describe asystem of music.[119] The theatrical culture flourished during the early Sangam age. Theatre-dance traditions have a long and varied history whose origins can be traced back almost two millennia to dance-theatre forms likeKotukotti, Kaapaalam andPandarangam, which are mentioned in an ancient anthology of poems entitled theKaliththokai.[120] Dance forms such asBharatanatyam are based on older temple dance forms known asCatir Kacceri, as practised bycourtesans and a class of women known asDevadasis.[121]
Carnatic music originated in the Dravidian region. With the growing influence of Persian and Sufi music on Indian music, a clear distinction in style appeared from the 12th century onwards. Many literary works were composed in Carnatic style and it soon spread wide in the Dravidian regions. The most notable Carnatic musician isPurandara Dasa who lived in the court ofKrishnadevaraya of theVijayanagara empire. He formulated the basic structure of Carnatic music and is regarded as thePitamaha (lit, "father" or the "grandfather") of Carnatic Music.Kanakadasa is another notable Carnatic musician who was Purandaradasa's contemporary.
Each of the major Dravidian languages has its own film industry likeKollywood (Tamil),Tollywood (Telugu),Sandalwood (Kannada),Mollywood (Malayalam). Kollywood and Tollywood produce most films in India.[122]
Dravidian speakers in southern India wear varied traditional costumes depending on their region, largely influenced by local customs and traditions. The most traditional dress for Dravidian men is thelungi, or the more formaldhoti, calledveshti in Tamil,panche in Kannada and Telugu, andmundu in Malayalam. The lungi consists of a colourful checked cotton cloth. Many times these lungis are tube-shaped and tied around the waist, and can be easily tied above the knees for more strenuous activities. The lungi is usually everyday dress, used for doing labour while dhoti is used for more formal occasions. Many villagers have only a lungi as their article of clothing. The dhoti is generally white in colour, and occasionally has a border of red, green or gold. Dhotis are usually made out of cotton for more everyday use, but the more expensive silk dhotis are used for special functions like festivals and weddings.
Traditional dress of Dravidian women is typical of most Indian women, that of the sari. This sari consists of a cloth wrapped around the waist and draped over the shoulder. Originally saris were worn bare, but during the Victorian era, women began wearing blouse (called a ravike) along with sari. In fact, until the late 19th century most Kerala women did not wear any upper garments, or were forced to by law, and in many villages, especially in tribal communities, the sari is worn without the blouse. Unlike Indo-Aryan speakers, most Dravidian women do not cover their head with the pallu except in areas of North Karnataka. Due to the complexity of draping the sari, younger girls start with a skirt called apavada. When they get older, around the age when puberty begins, they transition to alanga voni or half-sari, which is composed of a skirt tied at the waist along with a cloth draped over a blouse. After adulthood girls begin using the sari. There are many different styles of sari draping varying across regions and communities. Examples are theMadisar, specific to Tamil Brahmin Community, and theMundum Neriyathum.
InMahabharata,Bhishma claimed that southerners are skilled with sword-fighting in general andSahadeva was chosen for the conquest of the southern kingdoms due to his swordsmanship.[123] In South India various types of martial arts are practised likeKalaripayattu andSilambam.
In ancient times there wereankams, public duels to the death, to solve disputes between opposing rulers.[124] Among some communities, young girls received preliminary training up until the onset of puberty.[124] Invadakkan pattukal ballads, at least a few women warriors continued to practice and achieved a high degree of expertise.[124]
^Derenko: "The spread of these new technologies has been associated with the dispersal of Dravidian and Indo-European languages in southern Asia. It is hypothesized that the proto-Elamo-Dravidian language, most likely originated in the Elam province in southwestern Iran, spread eastwards with the movement of farmers to the Indus Valley and the Indian sub-continent."[49]
Derenko refers to: * Renfrew (1987),Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins * Renfrew (1996),Language families and the spread of farming. In: Harris DR, editor,The origins and spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, pp. 70–92 * Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi, Piazza (1994),The History and Geography of Human Genes.
^abcLockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion ofAryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."[76] Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."[77]
^abKumar, Dhavendra (2004).Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent. Springer. p. 6.ISBN978-1-4020-1215-0. Retrieved25 November 2008.... The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). ...
^abTamil Literature Society (1963),Tamil Culture, vol. 10, Academy of Tamil Culture,archived from the original on 9 April 2023, retrieved25 November 2008,... together with the evidence of archaeology would seem to suggest that the original Dravidian-speakers entered India from Iran in the fourth millennium BC ...
^abNamita Mukherjee; Almut Nebel; Ariella Oppenheim; Partha P. Majumder (December 2001), "High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India",Journal of Genetics,80 (3), Springer India:125–35,doi:10.1007/BF02717908,PMID11988631,S2CID13267463,... More recently, about 15,000–10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp ...
^abDhavendra Kumar (2004),Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent, Springer,ISBN1-4020-1215-2,archived from the original on 9 April 2023, retrieved25 November 2008,... The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus Valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). ...
^Johnson, Todd M.; Grim, Brian J. (2013)."Global Religious Populations, 1910–2010"(PDF).The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography. John Wiley & Sons. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 20 October 2013. Retrieved11 January 2022.
^Kumar, Dhavendra (2004).Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent. Springer. p. 6.ISBN978-1-4020-1215-0. Retrieved25 November 2008.... The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). ...
^David McAlpin, "Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian",Language vol. 50 no. 1 (1974); David McAlpin: "Elamite and Dravidian, Further Evidence of Relationships",Current Anthropology vol. 16 no. 1 (1975); David McAlpin: "Linguistic prehistory: the Dravidian situation", in Madhav M. Deshpande and Peter Edwin Hook:Aryan and Non-Aryan in India, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1979); David McAlpin, "Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications",Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol. 71 pt. 3, (1981)
^Namita Mukherjee; Almut Nebel; Ariella Oppenheim; Partha P. Majumder (December 2001), "High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central and western Asia into India",Journal of Genetics,80 (3):125–35,doi:10.1007/BF02717908,PMID11988631,S2CID13267463,... More recently, about 15,000–10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp ...
^Mallory 1989, p. 44: "There are still remnant northern Dravidian languages including Brahui ... The most obvious explanation of this situation is that the Dravidian languages once occupied nearly all of the Indian subcontinent and it is the intrusion of Indo-Aryans that engulfed them in northern India leaving but a few isolated enclaves. This is further supported by the fact that Dravidian loan words begin to appear in Sanskrit literature from its very beginning."
^Cole, Jennifer (2006)."The Sindhi language"(PDF). In Brown, K. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Vol. 11 (2nd ed.). Elsevier. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 6 January 2007.Harappan language ... prevailing theory indicates Dravidian origins
^abMudumby Narasimhachary (Ed) (1976). Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya, Issue 160 of Gaekwad's Oriental Series. Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.
^abcZarrilli, Phillip B. (1998).When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalaripayattu, a South Indian Martial Art. Oxford University Press. p. 95.ISBN978-0-19-563940-7.
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