Dravidian folk religion refers to the presumed indigenous traditions of theDravidian-speaking peoples, believed to have been practiced before significantIndo-Aryan cultural influence. These traditions likely includedancestor worship, nature veneration, and village deities, some of which persisted and merged with later Hindu practices. These practices were either historically or are at presentĀgamic. The origin and chronology of Agamas is unclear. Some areVedic and others non-Vedic.[1]
The Agama traditions includeYoga andself-realization concepts, some includeKundalini Yoga,[2] asceticism, and philosophies ranging fromDvaita (duality) toAdvaita (non-duality).[3] Some suggest that these are late post-Vedic texts, others as compositions dating back to over 1100 BCE.[4][5][6] Epigraphical and archaeological evidence suggests that Agama texts were in existence only by about middle of the 1st millennium CE.[7]
Scholars note that some passages in theHindu Agama texts appear to repudiate the authority of theVedas, while other passages assert that their precepts reveal the true spirit of the Vedas.[8][9] TheAgamas are a collection ofTamil andSanskritscriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation ofmurti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[10] According toBhadriraju Krishnamurti, Dravidian 'linguistic' influence on early Vedic religion is evident; many of these features are already present in the oldest knownIndo-Aryan language, the language of theRigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. The linguistic evidence for Dravidian impact grows increasingly strong as one moves from theSamhitas down through the later Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature.[11] This represents an early religious and cultural fusion[12][note 1] or synthesis[14] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans that went on to influence Indian civilisation.[13][15][16][17]
Scholars do not share a uniform consensus on early Dravidian religion. Some scholars believe that the Dravidian religion was a belief system unique to theNeolithic people of South Asia before the origin of Indo-Aryan languages. Pope believes that in the pre-historic period the Dravidian religion was a precursor to Shaivism and Shaktism[18] while John B. Magee was of the view that there is no evidence of any separate native Dravidian religion prior to 1500 BCE.[19] Other scholars define it as a non-Vedic part ofHinduism. Henry O. Thompson's definition ofHinduism included Dravidian traditions as one of the important foundational element.[20] Sjoberg claims that the Dravidian religion influencedHinduism more than its Indo-Aryan counterpart,[21][note 2][22][23][24][25] Gustav Oppert suggests Dravidian religion was centered on the worship of Goddess as mother, protector of villages and the seven sisters identified with Matrikas.[26][27][28] Wilder Theodre Elmore comments that the Dravidian folk religions are not a simple form of animism, but exhibit complexmetaphysical concepts.[29] The widespread worship of certain village deities of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu may be argued to reflect a survival of the pre-Brahmanic religious tradition.[30][31][32]
The cult of the Female Principle was a major aspect of Dravidian religion, The concept of Shakti was an integral part of their religion [...] The cult of theSapta Matrika, or Seven Divine Mothers, which is an integral part of the Shakta religion, may be of Dravidian inspiration.[33]
This dravidian linguistic influence represents an early religious and cultural fusion[12][note 1] or synthesis[14] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora and fauna that went on to influenceHinduism,Buddhism,Jainism,Sramana andCharvaka.[13][15][16][17]
Ayyanar, guardian folk deity of Tamil Nadu villages
Ancient Tamil grammatical worksTholkappiyam, the ten anthologiesPattuppāṭṭu, the eight anthologiesEṭṭuttokai sheds light on early ancient Dravidian religion.Seyyon (Also known asMurugan) was glorified as "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent", as "the favored god of the Tamils".[53]Shiva was seen as theSupreme God.[53] Early iconography ofMurugan[54] andSivan[55][56][57] and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilisation.[58][59] TheSangam landscape was classified into five categories,thinais, based on the mood, the season and the land.Tolkappiyam, mentions that each of thesethinai had an associated deity suchMurugan inKurinji – the hills and mountains,Thirumal inMullai – the forests, andVendhan inMarutham – the plains and croplands,Kadalon in theNeithal – the coasts and the seas, andKottravai inPālai – the deserts. Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vāli, who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time.
Typical layout of Dravidian architecture which evolved fromkoyil as a king's residence.
ThroughoutTamilakam, a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance.[60] The king was "the representative of God on earth" and lived in akoyil, which means "residence of a god". The modern Tamil word for temple iskoil (Tamil:கோயில்). Ritual worship was also given to kings.[61][62] Modern words for god likekō (Tamil:கோ "king"),iṟai (இறை "emperor") andāṇḍavar (ஆண்டவன் "conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later intoHinduism like the legendary marriage ofShiva to QueenMeenātchi who ruledMadurai, andIndhiran, a god who was later merged intoIndra.[63]Tolkaappiyar refers to theThree Crowned Kings as the "Three Glorified by Heaven", (Tamil: வான்புகழ் மூவர்,Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar).[64] In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.[65]
The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one and was typically associated withShaktism.[66] Her worship was accepted in the northern parts of India with various names as Devi, Ksetradevata etc.[67] More recent scholarship has been correcting the misrepresentation made by a section of Westerner scholars in the portrayal of the tradition of the goddess. Western scholars like Denobili portrayed Brahmin as "gentilism" and the goddess tradition as "idolatarous".[68]
The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess.[69] In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.[70] Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones,Natukal, had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about the 16th century.[71] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship thesehero stones to bless them with victory.[72] Many Hindu sects such asBhakti movement andLingayatism originated inTamil Nadu andKarnataka respectively. In addition to literary sources, folk festivals, village deities, shamanism, ritual theater and traditions, which are unique to the region, are also good indicators of what early Dravidian people believed/practiced.
The most popular deity isMurugan, he is known as the patron god of the Tamils and is also calledTamil Kadavul (Tamil God).[73][74] In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son andPillaiyar the eldest son ofShiva. This differs from the North Indian tradition, which represents Murugan as the elder son. The goddessParvati is often depicted as having a green complexion in Tamil Hindu tradition, implying her association with nature. The worship ofAmman, also calledMariamman, who is thought to have been derived from an ancientmother goddess, is also very common.[75]Kan̲n̲agi, the heroine of theCilappatikār̲am, is worshipped asPattin̲i by many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka.[76] There are also many followers ofAyyavazhi in Tamil Nadu, mainly in the southern districts.[77] In addition, there are many temples and devotees ofVishnu,Shiva,Ganapati, and the other Hindu deities. Some other deities that later emerged independently in Tamil tradition include:Angala Devi,Madurai Veeran,Karuppu Sami,Muniandi,Sudalai Madan,Isakki,Devi Kanya Kumari, andPeriyachi.
In ruralTamil Nadu, many local deities, calledaiyyan̲ārs, are believed to be the spirits of local heroes who protect the village from harm.[78] Their worship often centres aroundnadukkal, stones erected in memory of heroes who died in battle. This form of worship is mentioned frequently in classical literature and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition.[79] A large portion of these deities continue to be worshipped as theVillage deities of Tamil Nadu andSri Lanka, and their subsequent influence inSouth-east Asia, examples of which include the Mariamman temples inSingapore andVietnam. Worship of anthills, snakes and other forms of guardian deities and heroes are still worshiped in theKonkan coast,Maharashtra proper and a few other parts of India includingNorth India which traces its origins to ancient Dravidian religion which has been influencing formation of mainstream Hinduism for thousands of years.
Ahero stone, known as "Natukal" byTamils, "Gandragallu" byTelugu and "Virgal" byKannadigas, is a memorial commemorating the honorable death of a hero in battle. Erected between the 3rd century BCE and the 18th century CE, hero stones are found all over India, most of them in southern India. They often carry inscriptions displaying a variety of adornments, includingbas relief panels, frieze, and figures on carved stone.[80] Usually they are in the form of a stone monument and may have an inscription at the bottom with a narrative of the battle. According to the historianUpinder Singh, the largest concentration of such memorial stones are found inKarnataka. About two thousand six hundred and fifty hero stones, the earliest dated to the 5th century have been discovered in Karnataka.[81] The custom of erecting memorial stones dates back to the Iron Age (1000–600 BCE), though a vast majority were erected between the 5th and 13th centuries CE.
Veriyattam refers tospirit possession of women, who took part in priestly functions. Under the influence of the god, women sang and danced, but also read the dim past, predicted the future, diagnosed diseases.[82] Twenty two poets of the Sangam age in as many as 40 poems portray Veriyatal. Velan is a reporter and prophet endowed with supernatural powers. Veriyatal had been performed by men as well as women.[83]
Among the early Tamils, the practice of erectinghero stones (nadukkal) had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 11th century.[84] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.[85] A Chola-periodArikandam statue was discovered from Cholapuram village inSivaganga district depicting the self-decapitation of a devotee to goddessKali to redeem a vow he had made to the deity.[86]
Theyyam is a ritual shaman dance popular inKerala and parts ofKarnataka. Theyyam migrates into the artist who has assumed the spirit and it is a belief that the god or goddess comes in the midst of fathering through the medium of possessed dancer. The dancer throws rice on the audience and distributes turmeric powder as symbols of blessing. Theyyam incorporates dance, mime and music and enshrines the rudiments of ancient tribal cultures which attached great importance to the worship of heroes and the spirits of ancestors, is a socio-religious ceremony. There are over 400 Theyyams performed, the most spectacular ones are those of Raktha Chamundi, Kari Chamundi, Muchilottu Bhagavathi, Wayanadu Kulaven, Gulikan and Pottan. These are performed in front of shrines, sans stage or curtains.
The early character of Tamil religion was celebrative. It embodied an aura of sacral immanence, sensing the sacred in the vegetation, fertility, and color of the land. The summum bonum of the religious experience was expressed in terms of possession by the god, or ecstasy. Into this milieu there immigrated a sobering influence—a growing number of Jain and Buddhist communities and an increasing influx of northerners.[citation needed]
The layout of villages can be assumed to be standard across most villages. An Amman (mother goddess) is at the centre of the villages while a maleguardian deity (Tamil: காவல் கடவுள்,kāval kaṭavuḷ) has a shrine at the village borders. Nowadays, Amman can be either worshipped alone or as a part of the Vedic pantheon.[87]
There are multiplefolk dance rituals in Karnataka used for the worship ofgramadevata. One of these from Tulu areas isYakshagana, literally meansing the song (gana) of theyaksha, (nature spirits).[88] Yakshagana is the scholastic name (used for the last 200 years) for art forms formerly known askēḷike, āṭa,bayalāṭa, anddaśāvatāra (Kannada:ದಶಾವತಾರ). From the Old Mysore region comesSomana Kunitha.
Koothu (Tamil:கூத்து), and alternatively spelt askuttu, means dance or performance inTamil, it is a folk art originated from the earlyTamil country.[89][90]
During the era of theBritish Raj, several Christian authors in the field of ethnology often drew a comparison between the Dravidian folk religion and the variousIndo-AryanBrahmanical traditions. A later record of the colonial administration, titledManual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, described the south Indian faith along the binary lines of deities and demons, essentially categorising the worship of the Dravidian population to "demons", or to "deities who rule[d] such demons to induce their interposition". The text considered the village goddess who guarded the village from disease and calamity in the category of superior demons, who, it stated, had attained the status of deities. Little distinction existed, according to the text, between the deities and the demons. The goddesses were placed within the paradigm of demonolatry, and the scholar identified blood sacrifice as a significant trait of the Dravidian religion. The reverend Samuel Mateer set apart the idolatry of Brahman-centered Hinduism from the worship of "evil and malignant spirits" that was performed by the indigenous natives of Southern India.[91] The scholar Whitehead concluded that the "village deity" was little more than a petty spirit that tyrannised and protected a local hamlet, inspiring fear due to an ability to inflict diseases and injury to the villagers, not evoking any admiration or morality.[92]
Due to theGirmityas,Tamil andTelugu immigration to British, French, and Dutch colonies brought the religious practices that were derived from Dravidian Folk Religion but were syncretized with VedicHinduism. One of the most famous examples is the Cult ofMariamman which can be found across the Tamil Diaspora. The religious tradition is famous for their traditions of body mutilation, walking on hot coals, andKarakattam Puja.
In the Caribbean, a unique tradition calledCaribbean Shaktism developed as a syncretic religion of this Tamil Mariamman worship and with aspects of Catholicism or other influences of the Caribbean religion.
^abcLockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion ofIndo-Aryan peoples andDravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."[12] Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."[13]
^Tyler, inIndia: An Anthropological Perspective(1973), page 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process, the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself.[21]
^Hiltebeitel: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320-467 CE)."
^Ghurye: He [Hutton] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. "The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism".[37]
^Tyler, inIndia: An Anthropological Perspective(1973), page 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself.[21]
^Hopfe & Woodward: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."[42]
Flood, Gavin D. (1996).An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press.[35]
Nath, Vijay (March–April 2001). "From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition".Social Scientist.29 (3/4):19–50.doi:10.2307/3518337.JSTOR3518337.[39]
David Gordo White: "[T]he religion of the Vedas was already a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations."[45]
Richard Gombrich: "It is important to bear in mind that the Indo-Aryans did not enter an unhabited [sic] land. For nearly two millennia they and their culture gradually penetrated India, moving east and south from their original seat in the Punjab. They mixed with people who spoke Munda or Dravidian languages, who have left no traces of their culture beyond some archaeological remains; we know as little about them as we would about the Indo-Aryans if they had left no texts. In fact we cannot even be sure whether some of the aerchaeological finds belong to Indo-Aryans, autochthonous populations, or a mixture. It is to be assumed - though this is not fashionable in Indian historiography - that the clash of cultures between Indo-Aryans and autochtones was responsible for many of the changes in Indo-Aryan society. We can also assume that many - perhaps most - of the indigenous population came to be assimilated into Indo-Aryan culture.[46]
^PT Raju (2009), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Routledge,ISBN978-81-208-0983-3, page 45; Quote:The word Agama means 'coming down', and the literature is that of traditions, which are mixtures of the Vedic with some non-Vedic ones, which were later assimilated to the Vedic.
^Richard Davis (2014), Ritual in an Oscillating Universe: Worshipping Siva in Medieval India, Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0-691-60308-7, page 167 note 21, Quote (page 13): "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important."
^Guy Beck (1993), Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound, University of South Carolina Press,ISBN978-0-87249-855-6, pages 151–152
^Tripath, S.M. (2001). Psycho-Religious Studies Of Man, Mind And Nature. Global Vision Publishing House.ISBN978-81-87746-04-1
^Richard Davis (2014), Worshiping Śiva in Medieval India: Ritual in an Oscillating Universe, Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0-691-60308-7, pages 12–13
^For examples of Vaishnavism Agama text verses praising Vedas and philosophy therein, see Sanjukta Gupta (2013), Lakṣmī Tantra: A Pāñcarātra Text, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-1735-7, pages xxiii-xxiv, 96, 158–159, 219, 340, 353 with footnotes, Quote: "In order not to dislocate the laws ofdharma and to maintain the family, to govern the world without disturbance, to establish norms and to gratify me and Vishnu, the God of gods, the wise should not violate the Vedic laws even in thought – The Secret Method of Self-Surrender, Lakshmi Tantra, Pāñcarātra Agama".
^For examples in Shaivism literature, see T Isaac Tambyah (1984), Psalms of a Saiva Saint, Asian Educational Services,ISBN978-81-206-0025-6, pages xxii-xxvi
^Khan, Abdul Jamil (2006).Urdu/Hindi: an artificial divide : African heritage, Mesopotamian roots, Indian culture & British colonialism. Algora Publishing.
^Eliot, Charles (2007).Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol I. (of 3). Echo Library. p. 12.
^Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press.ISBN9780791430682.LCCN96-12383.
^Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). "Vedic Hinduism" (PDF). Harvard University. pp. 2–4. Retrieved 2019-01-23.
^Sree Padma (2013). "Goddess Explained". InVicissitudes of the Goddess. Oxford University Press. p. 11
^Manickam, Valliappa Subramaniam (1968).A glimpse of Tamilology. Academy of Tamil Scholars of Tamil Nadu. p. 75.
^Lal, Mohan (2006).The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature. Vol. 5: Sasay To Zorgot. Sahitya Akademi. p. 4396.ISBN8126012218.
^Shashi, S. S. (1996).Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Vol. 100. Anmol.
^Subramanium, N. (1980).Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils. Ennes.
^M. Shanmugam Pillai.Murukan in Cankam Literature: Veriyattu Tribal Worship. First International Conference Seminar on Skanda-Murukan in Chennai, 28–30 December 1998. Retrieved6 December 2006. This article first appeared in the September 1999 issue of theJournal of the Institute of Asian Studies.
^Harold G. Coward, John R. Hinnells, Raymond Brady Williams,The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the United States
