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Astorm drain,storm sewer (United Kingdom,U.S. andCanada),highway drain,[1]surface water drain/sewer (United Kingdom), orstormwater drain (Australia andNew Zealand) is infrastructure designed todrain excess rain andground water fromimpervious surfaces such as paved streets, car parks, parking lots, footpaths, sidewalks, and roofs. Storm drains vary in design from small residentialdry wells to large municipal systems.
Drains receive water fromstreet gutters on mostmotorways, freeways and other busyroads, as well as towns in areas with heavy rainfall that leads toflooding, and coastal towns with regularstorms. Evenrain gutters from houses and buildings can connect to the storm drain. Since many storm drainage systems aregravity sewers that drain untreated storm water into rivers or streams, any hazardous substances poured into the drains will contaminate the destination bodies of water.
Storm drains sometimes cannot manage the quantity of rain that falls in heavy rains or storms. Inundated drains can cause basement and street flooding. Many areas requiredetention tanks inside a property that temporarily hold runoff in heavy rains and restrict outlet flow to the public sewer. This reduces the risk of overwhelming the public sewer. Some storm drains mix stormwater (rainwater) withsewage, either intentionally in the case ofcombined sewers, orunintentionally.
Several related terms are used differently in American and British English.
| Term | American | British | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Combined sewer | A sewer designed and intended to serve as asanitary sewer and a storm sewer, or as an industrial sewer and a storm sewer[2]: 121 | Same as American English | Stormwater mixed withsewage |
| Storm sewer, Surface water sewer, or surface sewer | A sewer designed and intended to carry only stormwater, surface runoff, street wash waters, and drainage[2]: 668 | A sewer designed and intended to carry only rainwater runoff | Only stormwater |
| Stormwater bypass | Same as British English | A combined sewer discharge pipeline intended to bypasswastewater treatment plants during peak runoff events[citation needed] | Stormwater mixed with sewage |
| Road channel | See roadside ditch | A roadside channel to prevent uncontrolled runoff along roadway surfaces[citation needed] | Only stormwater |
| Road gully | See roadside ditch | Consists of a gully grating on a chamber that connects to a surface water sewer / drain, ditch, orwatercourse | Only stormwater |
| Roadsideditch | A roadside channel to prevent uncontrolled runoff along roadway surfaces[3] | See road gully | Only stormwater |
There are two main types ofstormwater drain (highway drain or road gully in the UK) inlets: side inlets and grated inlets. Side inlets are located adjacent to the curb and rely on the ability of the opening under the back stone or lintel to capture flow. They are usually depressed at the invert of the channel to improve capture capacity.[4]
Many inlets havegratings or grids to prevent people, vehicles, large objects ordebris from falling into the storm drain. Grate bars are spaced so that the flow of water is not impeded, butsediment and many small objects can also fall through. However, if grate bars are too far apart, the openings may present a risk to pedestrians, bicyclists, and others in the vicinity. Grates with long narrow slots parallel to traffic flow are of particular concern to cyclists, as the front tire of a bicycle may become stuck, causing the cyclist to go over the handlebars or lose control and fall. Storm drains in streets and parking areas must be strong enough to support the weight of vehicles, and are often made of cast iron or reinforced concrete.[citation needed]
Some of the heavier sediment and small objects may settle in a catch basin, or sump, which lies immediately below the outlet, where water from the top of the catch basin reservoir overflows into the sewer proper. The catchbasin serves much the same function as the "trap" in household wastewaterplumbing in trapping objects.
In the United States, unlike the plumbing trap, the catch basin does not necessarily prevent sewer gases such ashydrogen sulfide andmethane from escaping. However, in the United Kingdom, where they are calledgully pots,[5] they are designed as true water-filled traps and do block the egress of gases and rodents.
Most catchbasins containstagnant water during drier parts of the year and can, in warm countries, becomemosquito breeding grounds.Larvicides or disruptive larval hormones, sometimes released from "mosquito biscuits", have been used to control mosquito breeding in catch basins. Mosquitoes may be physically prevented from reaching the standing water or migrating into the sewer proper by the use of an "inverted cone filter". Another method ofmosquito control is to spread a thin layer of oil on the surface of stagnant water, interfering with the breathing tubes of mosquito larvae.
The performance of catch basins at removingsediment and otherpollutants depends on the design of the catchbasin (for example, the size of the sump), and on routine maintenance to retain the storage available in the sump to capture sediment. Municipalities typically have largevacuum trucks that perform this task.
Catch basins act as the first-line pretreatment for othertreatment practices, such asretention basins, by capturing large sediments and street litter fromurban runoff before it enters the storm drainage pipes.
Pipes can come in many different cross-sectional shapes (rectangular, square, bread-loaf-shaped, oval, inverted pear-shaped, egg shaped, and most commonly, circular).Drainage systems may have many different features includingwaterfalls, stairways, balconies and pits for catching rubbish, sometimes called Gross Pollutant Traps (GPTs). Pipes made of different materials can also be used, such as brick, concrete,high-density polyethylene or galvanized steel.Fibre reinforced plastic is being used more commonly for drain pipes and fittings.[6]
Most drains have a single large exit at their point of discharge (often covered by agrating) into acanal, river, lake,reservoir, sea or ocean. Other than catchbasins, typically there are no treatment facilities in the piping system. Small storm drains may discharge into individualdry wells. Storm drains may be interconnected using slotted pipe, to make a larger dry well system. Storm drains may discharge into human-made excavations known as recharge basins or retention ponds.
Simple infrastructure such as open drains, pipes, andberms are still common. In modern times, more complex structures involving substantial earthworks and new technologies have been common as well.
New storm water drainage systems incorporategeotextile filters that retain and prevent finegrains ofsoil from passing into and clogging the drain. Geotextiles are synthetic textile fabrics specially manufactured forcivil andenvironmental engineering applications. Geotextiles are designed to retain fine soil particles while allowing water to pass through. In a typical drainage system, they would be laid along a trench which would then be filled with coarsegranular material:gravel,sea shells, stone orrock. The geotextile is then folded over the top of the stone and the trench is then covered by soil.Groundwater seeps through the geotextile and flows through the stone to an outfell. In high groundwater conditions a perforated plastic (PVC orPE) pipe is laid along the base of the drain to increase the volume of water transported in the drain.
Alternatively, a prefabricated plastic drainage system made ofHDPE, often incorporating geotextile,coco fiber orragfilters can be considered. The use of these materials has become increasingly more common due to their ease of use, since they eliminate the need for transporting and laying stone drainage aggregate, which is invariably more expensive than a synthetic drain and concrete liners.
Over the past 30 years, geotextile, PVC filters, and HDPE filters have become the most commonly used soil filter media. They are cheap to produce and easy to lay, with factory controlled properties that ensure long term filtration performance even in fine silty soil conditions.
Seattle's Public Utilities created a pilot program called Street Edge Alternatives Project. The project focuses on designing a system "to provide drainage that more closely mimics the natural landscape prior to development than traditional piped systems".[7]The streets are characterized by ditches along the side of the roadway, with plantings designed throughout the area.An emphasis on non-curbed sidewalks allows water to flow more freely into the areas of permeable surface on the side of the streets. Because of the plantings, the run off water from the urban area does not all directly go into the ground, but can also be absorbed into the surrounding environment.Monitoring conducted by Seattle Public Utilities reports a 99 percent reduction of storm water leaving the drainage project.[7]
Drainage has undergone a large-scale environmental review in the recent past[when?] in the United Kingdom.Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) are designed to encourage contractors to install drainage system that more closely mimic the natural flow of water in nature. Since 2010 local and neighbourhood planning in the UK is required by law to factor SUDS into any development projects that they are responsible for.
Slot drainage is a channel drainage system designed to eliminate the need for further pipework systems to be installed in parallel to the drainage, reducing the environmental impact of production as well as improving water collection.Stainless steel,concrete channel, PVC and HDPE are all materials available for slot drainage which have become industry standards on construction projects.
Thecivil engineer is responsible for drainage in construction projects. During the construction process, they set out all the necessary levels forroads,street gutters, drainage,culverts and sewers involved inconstruction operations.
Civil engineers and construction managers work alongsidearchitects and supervisors, planners,quantity surveyors, and the general workforce, as well as subcontractors. Typically, most jurisdictions have some body ofdrainage law to govern to what degree a landowner can alter the drainage from their parcel.
Drainage options for the construction industry include:
The surface opening of channel drainage usually comes in the form ofgratings (polymer, plastic, steel or iron) or a single slot (slot drain) that run along the ground surface (typically manufactured from steel or iron).
Earth retaining structures such asretaining walls also need to havegroundwater drainage considered during their construction. Typical retaining walls are constructed of impermeable material, which can block the path of groundwater. When groundwater flow is obstructed, hydrostaticwater pressure buildups against the wall and may cause significant damage. If the water pressure is not drained appropriately, retaining walls can bow, move, and fracture, causing seams to separate. The water pressure can also erode soil particles, leading to voids behind the wall andsinkholes in the above soil. Traditional retaining wall drainage systems can includeFrench drains, drain pipes orweep holes. To prevent soil erosion, geotextile filter fabrics are installed with the drainage system.
Drainage in planters refers to the implementation of effective drainage systems specifically designed for plant containers or pots. Proper drainage is crucial in planters to prevent waterlogging and promote healthy plant growth. Planter Drainage involves the incorporation of drainage holes, drainage layers, or specialized drainage systems to ensure excess water can escape from the planter. This helps to preventroot rot, water accumulation, and other issues that can negatively impact plant health. By providing adequate drainage in planters, it supports optimal plant growth and contributes to the overall success of gardening or landscaping projects.[8]
Drainage options for the planter include:
Wetland soils may need drainage to be used foragriculture. In the northern United States and Europe,glaciation created numerous smalllakes, which gradually filled withhumus to makemarshes. Some of these were drained using openditches and trenches to makemucklands, which are primarily used for high-value crops such asvegetables.
The world's largest project of this type has been in process for centuries in theNetherlands. The area betweenAmsterdam,Haarlem andLeiden was, inprehistoric times, swampland and small lakes. Turf cutting (peatmining),subsidence and shorelineerosion gradually caused the formation of one large lake, theHaarlemmermeer, or lake of Haarlem. The invention of wind-poweredpumping engines in the 15th century permitted some of the marginal land drainage. Still, the final drainage of the lake had to await the design of largesteam-powered pumps and agreements between regional authorities. The lake was eliminated between 1849 and 1852, creating thousands of km2 of new land.
Coastal plains andriver deltas may have seasonally or permanently highwater tables and must have drainage improvements if they are to be used for agriculture. An example is theflatwoodscitrus-growing region ofFlorida, United States. After periods of high rainfall, drainage pumps are employed to prevent damage to the citrus groves from overly wet soils.Rice production requires complete water control, as fields must be flooded or drained at different stages of the crop cycle. The Netherlands has also led the way in this type of drainage by draining lowlands along the shore and pushing back the sea until the original nation has been greatly enlarged.
In moist climates, soils may be adequate for cropping with the exception that they becomewaterlogged for brief periods each year, fromsnow melt or from heavyrains. Soils that are predominantlyclay will pass water very slowly downward. Meanwhile, plant roots suffocate because the excessive water around the roots eliminates air movement through the soil.
Other soils may have animpervious layer of mineralized soil, called ahardpan, or relatively impervious rock layers may underlie shallow soils. Drainage is especially important intree fruit production. Soils that are otherwise excellent may be waterlogged for a week of the year, which is sufficient to kill fruit trees and cost the productivity of the land until replacements can be established. In each of these cases, appropriate drainage carries off temporary flushes of water to prevent damage toannual orperennial crops.
Drier areas are often farmed byirrigation, and one would not consider drainage necessary. However, irrigation water always contains minerals andsalts, which can be concentrated to toxic levels byevapotranspiration. Irrigated land may need periodic flushes with excessive irrigation water and drainage to controlsoil salinity.
Storm drains are often unable to manage the quantity of rain that falls during heavy rains and/or storms. When storm drains are inundated, basement and street flooding can occur. Unlike catastrophic flooding events, this type ofurban flooding occurs in built-up areas where human-made drainage systems are prevalent. Urban flooding is the primary cause of sewer backups and basement flooding, which can affect properties repeatedly.[9]
Clogged drains also contribute to flooding by the obstruction of storm drains. Communities or cities can help reduce this by cleaningleaves from the storm drains to stop ponding or flooding into yards.[10]Snow in the winter can also clog drains when there is an unusual amount of rain in the winter and snow isplowed atop storm drains.[11]
Runoff into storm sewers can be minimized by includingsustainable urban drainage systems (UK term) orlow impact development orgreen infrastructure practices (US terms) into municipal plans. To reduce stormwater from rooftops, flows from eaves troughs (rain gutters and downspouts) may beinfiltrated into adjacent soil, rather than discharged into the storm sewer system. Storm water runoff from paved surfaces can be directed to unlined ditches (sometimes calledswales orbioswales) before flowing into the storm sewers, again to allow the runoff to soak into the ground.Permeable paving materials can be used in building sidewalks,driveways and in some cases, parking lots, to infiltrate a portion of the stormwater volume.[12]
Many areas require that properties havedetention tanks that temporarily hold rainwater runoff, and restrict the outlet flow to the public sewer. This lessens the risk of overburdening the public sewer during heavy rain. An overflow outlet may also connect higher on the outlet side of the detention tank. This overflow prevents the detention tank from completely filling. Restricting water flow and temporarily holding the water in a detention tank public this way makes it far less likely for rain to overwhelm the sewers.[13]
Thefirst flush fromurban runoff can be extremely dirty. Storm water may become contaminated while running down the road or otherimpervious surface, or from lawn chemical run-off, before entering the drain.
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Water running off these impervious surfaces tends to pick upgasoline,motor oil,heavy metals,trash and other pollutants from roadways and parking lots, as well asfertilizers andpesticides from lawns. Roads and parking lots are major sources ofnickel,copper,zinc,cadmium,lead andpolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are created ascombustion byproducts of gasoline and otherfossil fuels. Roof runoff contributes high levels ofsyntheticorganic compounds andzinc (fromgalvanized gutters). Fertilizer use on residential lawns, parks and golf courses is a significant source ofnitrates andphosphorus.[14][15]
Separation of undesired runoff can be achieved by installing devices within the storm sewer system. These devices are relatively new and can only be installed with new development or during major upgrades. They are referred to asoil-grit separators (OGS) or oil-sediment separators (OSS). They consist of a specializedmanhole chamber, and use the water flow and/or gravity to separate oil and grit.[16]
Catch basins are commonly designed with a sump area below the outlet pipe level—a reservoir for water and debris that helps prevent the pipe from clogging. Unless constructed with permeable bottoms to let water infiltrate into underlying soil, this subterranean basin can become a mosquito breeding area, because it is cool, dark, and retains stagnant water for a long time. Combined with standard grates, which have holes large enough for mosquitoes to enter and leave the basin, this is a major problem in mosquito control.[18]
Basins can be filled with concrete up to the pipe level to prevent this reservoir from forming. Without proper maintenance, the functionality of the basin is questionable, as these catch basins are most commonly not cleaned annually as is needed to make them perform as designed. The trapping of debris serves no purpose because once filled they operate as if no basins were present, but continue to allow a shallow area of water retention for the breeding of mosquito. Moreover, even if cleaned and maintained, the water reservoir remains filled, accommodating the breeding of mosquitoes.
Storm drains are separate and distinct fromsanitary sewer systems. The separation of storm sewers from sanitary sewers helps prevent sewage treatment plants becoming overwhelmed byinfiltration/inflow during a rainstorm, which could discharge untreated sewage into the environment.
Many storm drainage systems drain untreated storm water into rivers or streams. In the US, many local governments conduct public awareness campaigns about this, lest people dump waste into the storm drain system.[19] InCleveland, Ohio, for example, all new catch basins installed have inscriptions on them not to dump any waste, and usually include a fish imprint as well.Trout UnlimitedCanada recommends that a yellow fish symbol be painted next to existing storm drains.[20]
Cities that installed their sewage collection systems before the 1930s typically used single piping systems to transport bothurban runoff and sewage. This type of collection system is referred to as acombined sewer system (CSS). The cities' rationale when combined sewers were built was that it would be cheaper to build just a single system.[21] In these systems a sudden large rainfall that exceeds sewage treatment capacity is allowed to overflow directly from storm drains into receiving waters via structures calledcombined sewer overflows.[22]
Storm drains are typically installed at shallower depths than combined sewers. This is because combined sewers were designed to accept sewage flows from buildings with basements, in addition to receiving surface runoff from streets.[23]
About 860 communities in the US have combined sewer systems, serving about 40 million people.[24]New York City,Washington, D.C.,Seattle and other cities with combined systems have this problem due to a large influx of storm water after every heavy rain event. Some cities have dealt with this by adding large storage tanks or ponds to hold the water until it can be treated.Chicago has a system of tunnels, collectively called theDeep Tunnel, underneath the city for storing its stormwater.[25] Many areas require detention tanks or roof detention systems that temporarily hold runoff in heavy rains and restrict outlet flow to the public sewer. This lessens the risk of overwhelming the public sewer in heavy rain. An overflow outlet may also connect higher on the outlet side of the detention tank. This overflow prevents the detention tank from completely filling. By restricting the flow of water in this way and temporarily holding the water in adetention vault or tank or by rooftop detention, public sewers are less likely to overflow.[26]
Building codes and local governmentordinances vary significantly on the handling of storm drain runoff. New developments might be required to construct their storm drain processing capacity for returning the runoff to thewater table andbioswales may be required in sensitive ecological areas to protect thewatershed.
In the United States, cities, suburban communities, and towns with over 100,000 population, smaller community drainage systems in urbanized areas, and additional municipal systems that are specifically designated by state agencies are required to obtain discharge permits for their storm sewer systems under theClean Water Act.[27] TheEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued stormwater regulations for large cities in 1990 and for other communities in 1999.[28] The permits require local governments to operate stormwater management programs, covering both construction of new buildings and facilities, and maintenance of their existing municipal drainage networks. For new construction projects, many municipalities require builders to obtain approval of the site drainage system and structural plans. State government facilities, such as roads andhighways, are also subject to the stormwater management regulations.[29]
Southeastern Los Angeles County installed thousands of stainless steel, full-capture trash devices on their road drains in 2011.[30]
An internationalsubculture has grown up around exploring stormwater drains. Societies such as theCave Clan regularly explore the drains underneath cities. This is commonly known as "urban exploration", but is also known asdraining when in specific relation to storm drains.[31]
In several large American cities,homeless people live in storm drains. At least 300 people live in the 200 miles of underground storm drains ofLas Vegas, many of them making a living finding unclaimed winnings in the gambling machines.[32] An organization called Shine a Light was founded in 2009 to help the drain residents after over 20 drowning deaths occurred in the preceding years.[32][33] A man inSan Diego was evicted from a storm drain after living there for nine months in 1986.[34]
Archaeological studies have revealed use of rather sophisticated stormwaterrunoff systems in ancient cultures. For example, inMinoanCrete around 2000 BC, cities such asPhaistos were designed to have storm drains and channels to collect precipitation runoff. At CretanKnossos, storm drains include stone-lined structures large enough for a person to crawl through.[35] Other examples of early civilizations with elements of stormwater drain systems include early people ofMainland Orkney such asGurness and theBrough of Birsay inScotland.
TheIndus Valley Civilization hadsewerage and drainage systems. All houses in the major cities ofHarappa andMohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to coveredgravity sewers, which lined the major streets.[36]
The invention of hollow-pipe drainage is credited to Sir Hugh Dalrymple, who died in 1753.[37]
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