دڨة -دقة(in Arabic) | |
 Dougga | |
 Interactive map of Dougga/Thugga | |
| Location | Béja Governorate, Tunisia |
|---|---|
| Coordinates | 36°25′20″N9°13′6″E / 36.42222°N 9.21833°E /36.42222; 9.21833 |
| Type | Settlement |
| Area | 75 ha |
| History | |
| Founded | 6th century BC |
| Periods | Numidian toRoman Empire |
| Cultures | |
| Official name | Dougga/Thugga |
| Type | Cultural |
| Criteria | ii, iii |
| Designated | 1997(21stsession) |
| Reference no. | 794 |
| Region | Arab States |
Dougga orThugga orTBGG (Arabic:دقة,romanized: Duqqah;Tunisian Arabic:دڨة,romanized: Duggaⓘ) was aBerber, Punic andRoman settlement near present-dayTéboursouk in northernTunisia. The currentarchaeological site covers 75 hectares (190 acres).[1]UNESCO qualified Dougga as aWorld Heritage Site in 1997, believing that it represents "the best-preserved Roman small town in North Africa". The site, which lies in the middle of the countryside, has been protected from the encroachment of modern urbanization, in contrast, for example, toCarthage, which has been pillaged and rebuilt on numerous occasions. Dougga's size, its well-preserved monuments and its richNumidian-Berber,Punic,ancient Roman, andByzantine history make it exceptional. Amongst the most famous monuments at the site are aLibyco-Punic Mausoleum, the Capitol, theRoman theatre, and the temples ofSaturn and ofJuno Caelestis.
TheNumidian name of the settlement was recorded in theLibyco-Berber alphabet as TBGG.[2] ThePunic name of the settlement is recorded astbgg (𐤕𐤁𐤂𐤂) andtbgʿg (𐤕𐤁𐤂𐤏𐤂). The Root B GG in Phoenician means ("in the roof terrace").[3]Camps states that this may represent a borrowing of aBerber word derived from the roottbg ("to protect").[4] This evidently derives from the site's position atop an easily defensibleplateau. The name was borrowed intoLatin as Thugga. Once it was granted "free status", it was formally refounded and known asMunicipium Septimium Aurelium Liberum Thugga; "Septimium" and "Aurelium" are references to the "new" town's "founders" (conditores),Septimius Severus and M. Aurelius Antoninus (i.e.,Caracalla). For treatment ofliberum, see below. Once Dougga received the status of a Roman colony, it was formally known asColonia Licinia Septimia Aurelia Alexandriana Thuggensis.
In present-dayBerber, it is known as eitherDugga orTugga. That was borrowed intoArabic:دڨة orدقة and Dougga is aFrench transcription of this Arabic name.
The archaeological site is located 4.6 km (2.9 mi) SSW of the modern town ofTéboursouk on a plateau with an uninhibited view of the surrounding plains in the Oued Khalled.[5] The site offers a high degree of natural protection, which helps to explain its early occupation. The slope on which Dougga is built rises to the north and is bordered in the east by the cliff known as Kef Dougga.[6] Further to the east, the ridge of theFossa Regia, a ditch and boundary made by the Romans after the destruction of Carthage, indicates Dougga's position as a point of contact between thePunic andBerber worlds.
Dougga's history is best known from the time of the Roman conquest, even though numerous pre-Roman monuments, including anecropolis, amausoleum, and severaltemples have been discovered during archaeological digs. These monuments are an indication of the site's importance before the arrival of the Romans.
The city appears to have been founded in the 6th century BC.[7] Some historians believe that Dougga is the city of Tocae (Ancient Greek:Τοκαί,Tokaí), which was captured by a lieutenant ofAgathocles ofSyracuse at the end of the 4th century BC;[4]Diodorus of Sicily described Tocae as "a city of beautiful grandeur".[7]
Dougga was in any case an early and important human settlement. Its urban character is evidenced by the presence of a necropolis withdolmens, the most ancient archaeological find at Dougga, a sanctuary dedicated toBa'al Hammon, neo-Punicsteles, a mausoleum, architectural fragments, and a temple dedicated toMasinissa, the remains of which were found during archaeological excavations. Even though our knowledge of the city before the Roman conquest remains very limited, recent archaeological finds have revolutionized the image that we had of this period.
The identification of the temple dedicated to Masinissa beneath theforum disproved Louis Poinssot's theory that the Numidian city stood on the plateau but that it was separate from the newer Roman settlement. The temple, which was erected in the tenth year ofMicipsa's reign (139 BC), is 14 m × 6.3 m (46 ft × 21 ft) wide. It proves that the area around the forum was already built upon before the arrival of the Roman colonists.[7] A building dating to the 2nd century BC has also been discovered nearby. Similarly, Dougga's mausoleum is not isolated but stands within an urban necropolis.
Recent finds have disproved earlier theories about the so-called "Numidian walls". The walls around Dougga are in fact not Numidian; they are part of the city's fortifications erected inlate antiquity. Targeted digs have also proven that what had been interpreted as two Numidian towers in the walls are in fact two funeral monuments from the Numidian era reused much later as foundations and a section of defences.[8]
The discovery of Libyan and Punic inscriptions at the site provoked a debate on the administration of the city at the time of the Kingdom ofNumidia. The debate—about the interpretation ofepigraphic sources—focussed on the question of whether the city was still under Punic influence or whether it was increasingly Berber.[9][10] Local Berber institutions distinct from any form of Punic authority arose from the Numidian period onwards,[11] butCamps notes thatPunic shofets were still in place in several cities, including Dougga, during the Roman era,[12] which is a sign of continuing Punic influence and the preservation of certain elements of Punic civilization well after the fall of Carthage.
The Romans granted Dougga the status of an indigenous city (Latin:civitas) following their conquest of the region.[13]
The creation of thecolony ofCarthage during the reign ofAugustus complicated Dougga's institutional status. The city was included in the territory (pertica) of the Roman colony, but around this time, acommunity (pagus) of Roman colonists also arose alongside the existing settlement. For two centuries, the site was thus governed by two civic and institutional bodies: the city with itsperegrini and thepagus with itsRoman citizens. Both had Roman civic institutions: magistrates and a council (ordo) ofdecurions for the city, a local council from the end of the 1st century AD, and local administrators for thepagus, who were legally subordinated to the distant but powerful colony of Carthage. In addition, epigraphic evidence indicates that aPunic-style dual magistracy, thesufetes, achieved some civic stature here well into the imperial period. In fact, the city once had three magistrates serve at once, a relative rarity in the Mediterranean.[14]
Over time, theromanization of the city brought the two communities closer together. Notable members of theperegrini increasingly adopted Roman culture and behavior, became Roman citizens, and the councils of the two communities began to take decisions in unison. The increasing closeness of the communities was facilitated at first by their geographic proximity—there was no physical distinction between their two settlements—and then later by institutional arrangements. During the reign ofMarcus Aurelius, the city was grantedRoman law; from this moment onward, the magistrates automatically receivedRoman citizenship and the rights of the city's inhabitants became similar to those of the Roman citizens. During the same era, thepagus won a certain degree of autonomy from Carthage; it was able to receive bequests and administer public funds.
Nonetheless, it was not until AD 205, during the reign ofSeptimius Severus, that the two communities came together as onemunicipality (municipium), made "free" (see below) while Carthage'spertica was reduced. The city was supported by theeuergetism of its great families of wealthy individuals, which sometimes reached exorbitant levels, while its interests were successfully represented by appeals to theemperors. Dougga's development culminated during the reign ofGallienus, when it obtained the status of a separateRoman colony.
Dougga's monuments attest to its prosperity in the period from the reign ofDiocletian to that ofTheodosius I,[15] but it fell into a sort of stupor from the 4th century. The city appears to have experienced an early decline, as evidenced by the relatively poor remains ofChristianity.[15] The period ofByzantine rule saw the area around the forum transformed into a fort; several important buildings were destroyed in order to provide the necessary materials for its construction.
Dougga was never completely abandoned following theMuslim invasions of the area. For a long time, Dougga remained the site of a small village populated by the descendants of the city's former inhabitants, as evidenced by the smallmosque situated in the Temple of August Piety and the small bath dating to theAghlabid period on the southern flank of the forum.
The first Western visitors to have left eyewitness accounts of the ruins reached the site in the 17th century. This trend continued in the 18th century and at the start of the 19th century.[16] The best-preserved monuments, including the mausoleum, were described and, at the end of this period, were the object of architectural studies.
The establishment ofFrance'sTunisian protectorate in 1881 led to the creation of a national antiquities institute (French:Institut national du patrimoine), for which the excavation of the site at Dougga was a priority from 1901, parallel to the works carried out atCarthage. The works at Dougga concentrated at first on the area around the forum; other discoveries ensured that there was an almost constant series of digs at the site until 1939. Alongside these excavations, work was conducted to restore the capitol, of which only the front and the base of the wall of the cella were still standing, and to restore the mausoleum, particularly between 1908 and 1910 .[16]
After Tunisia's independence, other buildings were excavated, including the Temple of Caracalla's Victory in Germany. During the same period, the last inhabitants of the site were evicted and relocated to a village located on the plain several kilometers from the antique site, which is namedNew Dougga. In 1991, the decision was taken to make the site into a national archaeological park. A cooperative scientific programme aims in particular to promote the study of the inscriptions at the site and the pagan temples. In 1997, Dougga was added to theUNESCO list ofWorld Heritage Sites.
Despite its importance and its exceptional state, Dougga remains off the beaten track for many tourists and receives only about 50,000 visitors per year. In order to make it more attractive, the construction of an on-site museum is being considered, while the national antiquities institute has established a website presenting the site and the surrounding region.[17] For the time being, visitors with sufficient time can appreciate Dougga, not only because of its many ruins but also for its olive groves, which give the site a unique ambiance.
From AD 205, when the city (civitas) and community (pagus) fused into one municipality (municipium), Dougga bore the titleliberum, whose significance is not immediately clear. The term appears in the titles of a certain number of othermunicipia also founded at the same time:Thibursicum Bure,[18] Aulodes,[19] andThysdrus.[20] Several interpretations of its meaning have been suggested.[21][22] According toMerlin andPoinssot, the term derives from the name of the godLiber, in whose honor a temple was erected at Dougga.[23] The epithetLiberum would thus follow the same pattern asFrugifer andConcordia, which appear in the title of Thibursicum Bure. Thibursicum Bure is however an exception to the rule; the titles of the othermunicipia including the termliberum do not include the names of any divinities, and this hypothesis has therefore been abandoned.[22] Alternatively,liberum is taken as a reference to free status (libertas, "liberty"). This interpretation is confirmed by an inscription found at Dougga that honorsAlexander Severus as the "preserver of liberty" (conservator libertatis).[24]
It is, however, unclear exactly what form this liberty took.Toutain is of the opinion that this is a designation for a particular type ofmunicipium—free cities where the Roman governor did not have the right to control the municipal magistrates. There is however no evidence that Dougga enjoyed exceptional legal privileges of the type associated with certain free cities such asAphrodisias inAsia Minor.Veyne has thus suggested that Dougga's "freedom" is nothing but an expression of the concept of liberty without any legal meaning;[25] obtaining the status of amunicipium had freed the city of its subjugation and enabled it to adorn itself with the "ornaments of liberty" (ornamenta libertatis).[26] The city's liberty was celebrated just as its dignity was extolled; the emperorProbus is a "preserver of liberty and dignity" (conservator libertatis et dignitatis).[27]Gascou, in line with Veyne's interpretation, describes the situation thus: "Liberum, inThugga's title, is a term [...] with which the city, which had waited a long time for the status of a municipium, is happy to flatter itself".[28]
Despite Gascou's conclusion, efforts have been made more recently to identify concrete aspects of Dougga's liberty.Lepelley believes on the one hand that this must be a reference to the relations between the city andRome and on the other hand that the term can cover a range of diverse privileges of differing degrees.[22] It is known that the territory of Carthage, to which the Douggapagus belonged until AD 205, enjoyed such privileges: the inhabitants of thepagus even sent an appeal duringTrajan's reign to defend the fiscal immunity of the territory of Carthage (immunitas perticae Carthaginiensium).[29] The Douggacivitas had not been granted this concession, so the fusion ofpagus with thecivitas meant that the citizens of thepagus risked losing their enviable privilege. The liberty of themunicipia founded during the reign ofSeptimius Severus could thus be a reference to the fiscal immunity made possible by the region's great wealth and by the emperor's generosity to eachmunicipium at the time of its fusion. During the reign ofGallienus, a certain Aulus Vitellius Felix Honoratus, a well-known individual in Dougga, made an appeal to the emperor "in order to assure the public liberty".[30] Lepelley believes that this is an indication that the city's privilege had been called into question, although Dougga appears to have been at least partially able to preserve its concessions, as evidenced by an inscription to the honor of "Probus, defender of its liberty".[22]
According toChristol though, this interpretation overly restricts the meaning of the wordlibertas.[31] In Christol's view, it is important not to forget that the emperor's decision in 205 must have been taken in response to a request made by thecivitas and must have taken account of the relations that already existed between it and thepagus. It was the autonomy that thecivitas had achieved during the reign ofMarcus Aurelius and the granting of Roman law that raised the specter of a fusion of the two communities, which would without a doubt have provoked a certain unease in thepagus. The inhabitants of thepagus would have expressed "concern or even refusal when faced with the pretensions of their closest neighbors".[32] This would explain the honor that thepagus attributed toCommodus (conservator pagi, "protector of the community").[33]
For Christol, the termliberum must be understood in this context and in an abstract sense. This liberty derives from belonging to a city and expresses the end of thecivitas's dependence, "the elevation of a community of peregrini to the liberty of Roman citizenship",[31] which also served to placate the fears of the inhabitants of thepagus and to open the door to a later promotion, to the status of a colony. This promotion took place in AD 261, during the reign of Gallienus, following an appeal from Aulus Vitellius Felix Honoratus in Christol's version of events. Thereafter, the defence of thelibertas publica was not a question of defending a privilege at risk, but of requesting the "ultimate liberty" (summa libertas)—the promotion to the status of a colony.[34] Christol also points out that, despite the abstract character of terms such aslibertas ordignitas, their formal appearance should be references to concrete and unique events.[35]
The city as it exists today consists essentially of remains from the Roman era dating for the most part to the 2nd and 3rd century. The Roman builders had to take account both of the site's particularly craggy terrain and of earlier constructions, which led them to abandon the normal layout of Roman settlements,[36] as is also particularly evident in places such asTimgad.
Recent archaeological digs have confirmed the continuity in the city's urban development. The heart of the city has always been at the top of the hill, where the forum replaced the Numidianagora. As Dougga developed, urban construction occupied the side of the hill, so that the city must have resembled "a compact mass", according to Hédi Slim[36]
Early archaeological digs concentrated on public buildings, which meant that private buildings tended at first to be uncovered at the ends of the trenches dug for this purpose. Later, trenches were cut with the purpose of exposing particularly characteristic private buildings.
Traces of a residence dating to the Numidian era have been identified in the foundations of the temple dedicated toLiber.[37] Although these traces are very faint, they served to disprove the theories of the first archaeologists, including Louis Poinssot, that the Roman and pre-Roman settlements were located on separate sites. The two settlements evidently overlapped.
This residence, which dates to the 2nd or 3rd century, stands downhill from the quarters that surround the forum and the principal public monuments in the city, in an area where the streets are winding.[38]
Thetrifolium villa, named after aclover-shaped room that was without a doubt used as atriclinium, is the largest private house excavated so far at Dougga. The house had two storeys, but there is almost nothing left of the upper storey. It stands in the south of the city, halfway up the hill. The house is particularly interesting because of the way in which it is built to align with the lay of the land; the entrance hall slopes down to a courtyard around which the various rooms were arranged.[39]
The market dates from the middle of the 1st century. It took the form of a square 35.5 m × 28 m (116 ft × 92 ft) in size, surrounded by aportico and shops on two sides. The northern side had a portico, while anexedra occupied the southern side.[40] The exedra probably housed a statue ofMercury.[41]
In order to compensate for the natural incline of the ground on which the market stands, its builders undertook significant earthworks. These earthworks have been dated as being amongst the oldest Roman constructions, and their orientation vis-à-vis the forum seems to suggest that they were not built on any earlier foundations.[41] The modern-day location of the remains from the market near the forum should however not be misunderstood as indicating a link between the two. The market was almost completely destroyed during the construction of the Byzantine fort.[41] It was excavated in 1918–1919.[42]
TheLicinian Baths are interesting for having much of its original walls intact, as well as a long tunnel used by the slaves working at the baths. The baths were donated to the city by the Licinii family in the 3rd century. They were primarily used as winter baths. The frigidarium has triple arcades at both ends and large windows with views over the valley beyond.
The presence ofdolmens inNorth Africa has served to stoke historiographic debates that have been said to have ideological agendas.[43] The dolmens at Dougga have been the subject of archaeological digs, which have also uncovered skeletons and ceramic models.
Although it is difficult to put a date on the erection of the dolmens, as they were in use until the dawn of the Christian era, it seems likely that they date from at least 2000 years BC.[44]Gabriel Camps has suggested that a link toSicily. He has made the same suggestion for the "haouanet" tombs found inAlgeria andTunisia.[45]
A type of tomb unique to the Numidian world has been discovered at Dougga. They are referred to as bazina tombs or circular monument tombs.
The Mausoleum of Ateban is one of the very rare examples of royal Numidian architecture. There is another inSabratha inLibya. Some authors believe that there is a link with the funeral architecture inAnatolia and the necropoleis inAlexandria from the 3rd and 2nd century BC.[46]
This tomb is 21 m (69 ft) tall and was built in the 2nd century BC. A bilingual inscription installed in the mausoleum mentioned that the tomb was dedicated to Ateban, the son of Iepmatath and Palu. In 1842, Sir Thomas Reade, theBritishconsul inTunis seriously damaged the monument while removing this inscription. This bilingualPunic-Libyan Inscription, now held at theBritish Museum, made it possible to decode the Libyan characters.[47] It has only recently been established that the inscription was originally located on one side of a fake window on thepodium.[48] According to the most recent research, the names cited in the inscription are only those of its architect and of representatives of the different professions involved in its construction. The monument was built by the inhabitants of the city for a Numidian prince; some authors believe that it was intended forMassinissa[46][49]
The monument owes its current appearance to the work ofFrencharchaeologistLouis Poinssot, who essentially reconstructed it from pieces that were left lying on the ground. The tomb is accessed via apedestal with five steps. On the northern side of the podium (the lowest of three levels in the monument), there is an opening to the funeral chamber that is closed with a stone slab. The other sides are decorated with fake windows and fourAeolicpilasters. The second level is made up of a temple-like colonnade (naiskos); the columns on each side areIonic. The third level is the most richly decorated of all: in addition to pilasters similar to those on the lowest level, it is capped with apyramid. Some elements of carved stone have also survived.
Although work has in the past been undertaken to uncover the Roman sepulchres,[50] today they have been reclaimed in part byolive trees.
The different necropoleis mark the zones of settlement at Dougga. There are five areas that have been identified as necropoleis: the first in the northeast, around the Temple of Saturn and the Victoria Church, the second in the northwest, a zone which also encompasses the dolmens on the site, the third in the west, between the Aïn Mizeb and Aïn El Hammam cisterns and to the north of the Temple of Juno Caelestis, the fourth and the fifth in the south and the south-east, one around the mausoleum and the other around Septimius Severus'triumphal arch.[51]
Thehypogeum is a half-buried edifice from the 3rd century. It was erected in the middle of the oldest necropolis, which was excavated in 1913. The hypogeum was designed to house funeral urns in small niches in the walls; at the time of its discovery, it containedsarcophagi, which suggests that it was in use for a long time.[52]
Dougga still contains twotriumphal arches, which are in different states of disrepair.
Septimius Severus's arch, which is heavily damaged, stands close to the mausoleum and on the route leading from Carthage toThéveste.[53] It was erected in AD 205.
Alexander Severus' arch, which dates from 222 to 235, is relatively well preserved, despite the loss of its upper elements. It is equidistant from the capitol and the Temple of Juno Caelestis. Its arcade is 4 m (13 ft) tall.[54]
A third triumphal arch, dating from theTetrarchy, has been completely lost.
The city forum, which is 924 m2 (9,950 sq ft) in size[55] is small. It is better preserved in some places than others, because the construction of the Byzantine fort damaged a large section of it.[56] The capitol, which stands on an area surrounded byporticos, dominates its surroundings by virtue of its imposing appearance. The "square of theRose of the Winds" (which is named after a decorative element) seems more like an esplanade leading to the Temple ofMercury, which stands on its northern side, than an open public space.[56] The city'scuria and a tribune for speeches probably also stood here.[38]
Long ago, archaeologists believed that Roman settlement at Dougga occurredex nihilo. This suggestion has been contradicted by the discovery of a sanctuary dedicated toMassinissa amongst the substructures to the rear of the capitol.[57]
Roman theatres were a fundamental element of the monumental make-up of a city from the reign ofAugustus.[58]
The theatre, which was built in AD 168 or 169, is one of the best preserved examples inRoman Africa. It could seat 3500 spectators, even though Dougga only had 5000 inhabitants. It was one of a series of imperial buildings constructed over the course of two centuries at Dougga which deviate from the classic "blueprints" only inasmuch as they have been adapted to take account of the local terrain. Some minor adjustments have been made and the local architects had a certain freedom with regard to the ornamentation of the buildings.[59]
A dedication engraved into thepediment of thestage and on theportico the dominates the city, recalls the building's commissioner, P. Marcius Quadratus, who "built [it] for his homeland with his owndenarii"; the dedication was celebrated with "scenic representations, distributions of life, a festival and athletic games".
The theater is still used for performances of classic theater, particularly during the festival of Dougga, and conservation work has been carried out on it.[60]
The site known as the auditorium is an annex of the Temple ofLiber, which probably served for the initiation of novices. Despite its modern appellation, the auditorium was not a site for spectacles; only its form suggests otherwise. It measures 20 m × 20 m (66 ft × 66 ft).[61]
The city has acircus designed forchariot racing, but it is barely visible nowadays. Originally, the circus consisted of nothing more than a field; an inscription in the temple in honor of Caracalla's victory in Germany notes that the land was donated by the Gabinii in 214 and describes it as anager qui appellatur circus (field that serves as a circus) ).[62][63] In 225 though, the site was prepared and the circus was constructed. It was financed by the magistrates (duumviri andaedile) after they had promised to do so following in response to a request from the entire population of the city.[64] The circus was built to take the maximum possible advantage of the surrounding landscape, in reflection of an understandable need to limit costs in a medium-sized city with limited resources, but certainly also out of desire to finish the construction works as quickly as possible, given that magistrates' mandates were limited to one year. The construction was nonetheless expected to have "a certain magnitude";[65] at 393 m (1,289 ft) long with aspina 190 m × 6 m (623 ft × 20 ft),[66] the circus is quite extraordinary inRoman Africa. The circus marks Dougga out as one of the most important cities in the province, alongsideCarthage,Thysdrus,Leptis Magna,Hadrumet etUtica.[65] The donation of the land for the pleasure of the general populace (ad voluptatem populi) and its development following a request from the entire population (postulante universo populo) are a reminder of the importance of spectacles in the social life of Roman cities and the demand for popular entertainment.
The question of whether there was anamphitheater at Dougga has not been conclusively answered. Traditionally, a large elliptic depression to the northwest of the site has been interpreted as the site of an amphitheater. Archeologists have however become much more cautious on this subject.[38]
ThreeRoman baths have been completely excavated at Dougga; a fourth has so far only been partially uncovered. Of these four baths, one ("the bath of the house to the west of the Temple of Tellus") belongs to a private residence, two, the Aïn Doura bath and the bath known for a long time as the "Licinian bath", were, judging by their size, open to the public, while the nature of the last bath, the bath of the Cyclopses, is more difficult to interpret.
During the excavation of the Bath of theCyclopses, amosaic ofcyclopses forging Jupiter's thunderbolts was uncovered. It is now on display at theBardo National Museum, where several very well preservedlatrines are also on display. The building has been dated to the 3rd century CE on the basis of a study of the mosaic.
The size of the building (itsfrigidarium is less than 30 m2 (320 sq ft)[67]) has led some experts to believe that it was a private bath, but the identification of adomus in the immediate vicinity has proven difficult. The "trifolium villa" is quite distant, and the closest ruins are hard to identify as they have not been well preserved.[67]Yvon Thébert therefore suggests that the bath served the local quarter.[67]
The Antonian Bath, which dates from the 3rd century, was known as theLicinian Baths (after emperorPublius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus) and has several storeys. Louis Poinssot's identification of the bath as dating toGallienus' reign on the basis of incomplete inscriptions and Dougga's prosperity at this time has been called into question by recent research, conducted in particular by Michel Christol. Christol has suggested that the bath dates from the reign ofCaracalla;[68] this thesis has since been confirmed by ananalysis of inscriptions.[69] Others have even suggested that the bath dates from the reign of theSeveran dynasty, because of a particularity which became common a century later in the west: the columns in the northwestperistyle featuredaises bearing arches.[70]
The bath was later used for the production ofolive oil at an unknown date.[71]
The symmetrical building is medium-sized, with an area of 1,700 m2 (18,000 sq ft) excluding thepalaestra, of which 175 m2 (1,880 sq ft) are taken up by the frigidarium.[71] The construction of the bath required work both to lower and to raise sections of the slope on which it stood, which may explain why parts of the building have been better preserved than others; the section built on raised ground has for the most part been lost.[72]
In the immediate vicinity of Aïn Doura is a partially excavated complex that could turn out to be the largest bath in the city, theAïn Doura Baths. On the basis of the mosaics that have been found here, it has been suggested that the bath dates from the end of the 2nd century or the start of the 3rd century,[73] and that the mosaic décor was renewed in the 4th century CE.[74]
The complex remains largely unexposed, but it seems, according to Yvon Thébert, that it has a symmetrical design, of which only a section of the cold rooms has been excavated.[74]
This bath, measuring 75 m2 (810 sq ft), which can be accessed from the house and from the street, was uncovered at the start of the 20th century. The archaeological analysis of the bath's relationship with the house in which it is located has ledThébert to suggest that it was a later addition to the original construction but he does not propose a date for this event.[75]
There is archaeological orepigraphic evidence for more than twenty temples at Dougga; a significant number for a small city. There are archaeological remains and inscriptions proving the existence of eleven temples, archaeological remains of a further eight, and inscriptions referring to another fourteen.[76] This abundance of religious sites is the result in particular of the philanthropy of wealthy families.[77]
The Temple ofMassinissa is located on the western flank of the capital. The first archaeologists believed that the remains of the temple were a monumentalfountain, even though an inscription proving the existence of a sanctuary to the deceasedNumidian king was discovered in 1904. This inscription has been dated to 139 BC, during the reign ofMicipsa.[78]
The remains are similar to those of the temple inChemtou[57] and are evidence of the fact that the political center of the Roman city was in the same place as the Hellenicagora.[79] The stone remains found in this area seem to belong to several different structures; the exact location of the sanctuary is still open to debate.[80]
Although it is believed that the sanctuary set Massinissa on par with a god, this is debated by some experts.Gsell believes that a temple to the king would reflect a continuation of eastern and Hellenic practices;Camps builds on this hypothesis, pointing out the lack of any antique sources testifying to anything more than simple expressions of respect by a people vis-à-vis its king.[81] According to Camps, the temple is only a memorial, a site belonging to a funeral cult. Its construction ten years intoMicipsa's reign can be explained by its political symbolism: Micipsa, sole ruler after the death of his brothersGulussa andMastanabal, was affirming the unity of his kingdom around the person of the king.[82]
The Capitol is a Roman temple from the 2nd century, principally dedicated toRome'sprotective triad:Jupiter Best and Greatest (Jupiter Optimus Maximus),Juno the Queen (Juno Regina), andMinerva the August (Minerva Augusta). It has a secondary dedication to the wellbeing of the emperorsLucius Verus andMarcus Aurelius; judging by this reference, the Capitol must have been completed in AD 166-167.[83]
Thomas d'Arcos identified the Capitol as a temple of Jupiter in the 17th century. It was the object of further research at the end of the 19th century, led in particular by the doctor Louis Carton in 1893. The walls, executed inopus africanum style, and theentablature of theportico were restored between 1903 and 1910. Claude Poinssot discovered acrypt beneath thecella in 1955. The most recent works were carried out by the TunisianInstitut national du patrimoine between 1994 and 1996.[84]
The Capitol is exceptionally well preserved, which is a consequence of its inclusion in the Byzantine fortification. A series of eleven stairs lead up to the front portico. The temple front'sCorinthian columns are 8 m (26 ft) tall, on top of which is the perfectly preservedpediment. The pediment bears a depiction of emperorAntoninus Pius'selevation to godhood. The emperor is being carried by aneagle.[84]
The base of the cella still features alcoves for three statues. The middle alcove houses a colossal statue of Jupiter.[84]
The discovery of the head of a statue of Jupiter has ledPoinssot to suggest that the crypt dates from the period of Christianity's triumph over the old religions.St-Amans does not exclude the possibility that the crypt was built at the same time as the Byzantine citadel,[84] of which the forum and capitol formed the nerve center.
The construction of the Capitol at Dougga occurred at the same time as the construction of other monuments of the same type elsewhere inNorth Africa, whichGros explains as a consequence of the greater proximity of theimperial cult and the cult of Jupiter.[85]
Near the Capitol are the "square of theRose of the Winds"—which is named after a compass rose that is engraved on the floor—and the remains of the Byzantine citadel, which reused a section of the ruins after the city's decline.
The Temple ofMercury is also dedicated toTellus. It faces towards the market; between the two lies the "square of theRose of the Winds". The temple is largely in ruins. It has threecellae[86] but no courtyard. The sanctuary, which can be accessed via a series of four stairs, stands on a faded podium.[87] It was excavated and shored up between 1904 and 1908.
The small Temple of August Piety was built during the reign ofHadrian. It was financed through the philanthropy of a certain Caius Pompeius Nahanius.[88] The temple faces the "square of theRose of the Winds". Part of thevestibule survives. Behind the temple, on the foundations of the Temple ofFortuna,Venus Concordia andMercury, stands amosque. The mosque is the last remnant of the little village that existed on the site until the creation of New Dougga.[89]
D'Arcos identified the temple in 1631 thanks to an inscription that was still in place at the time. The podium is relatively low (1–1.5 m or 3 ft 3 in – 4 ft 11 in); it can be ascended by a series of seven stairs on the southern side.[90]
The first Temple of Minerva at Dougga was a gift of thepatron of thecivitas at the end of the 1st century,[91] but the more important site dedicated to this divinity is a building which features a temple and an area surrounded by aportico dating from the reign ofAntoninus Pius. It was financed through the philanthropy of a priestess of theimperial cult, Julia Paula Laenatiana.[92] The building was designed to take advantage of the slope on which it stands; the podium is at the level of the roof of the portico and the temple in the strict sense of the word is located outside the surrounding building. The stairs providing access to the temple accentuates the inaccessible nature of the divinity.[86]
The Temple of Caracalla's Victory in Germany is the only edifice dedicated to theimperial cult to have been located precisely at Dougga.[93] Fragments of an inscription on the temple'slintel were discovered in 1835, but the temple was not identified until 1966. It features anymphaeum that dates to the reign ofCommodus.[94]
The temple, which is relatively narrow, has an unusual design. It is 41.5 m × 14.2 m (136 ft × 47 ft), and is situated beside the road that descends from the forum to the Aïn Doura Bath. The temple is associated with atriumphal arch over the road. The temple can be accessed via a semi-circular staircase; in each corner of the courtyard in front of the staircase is a reservoir for rain water. Thecella inside the sanctuary features six lateral niches which are designed to hold the bases of statues ofApollo,Liber,Neptune,Mercury and of two other gods that can no longer be identified.
The temple can be seen from afar, but passers-by can only see thecella, the foundations of which are decorativelyrusticated. Seven columns are spaced along the cella, linking to the lateral door, which opens onto the staircase. Thetetrastyle temple is built inTuscan orderin antis.[94] The temple's design is unusual inasmuch as temples of the imperial cult are generallyCorinthian and located in the middle of a vast courtyard with a portico; the Tuscan order was thus quite rare in the provinces.[93]
The temple therefore bears witness to a desire to construct something that was different from other such buildings, doubtless in response to the constraints created by the terrain. The dedication in the temple sheds light on its construction: the inscription, which has been very precisely dated to AD 214, consecrates the temple to the personification of victory,Victoria, here specifically in connection with the emperor's campaigns in Germany, for the welfare of Caracalla and of his mother Iulia Domna.[95]
The text recalls the military projects of the son ofSeptimius Severus and their celebration within the context of the imperial cult. This inscription also explains that the temple was constructed at a cost of 100,000sestertii on the wishes of a great lady of Dougga named Gabinia Hermiona after her death. Besides the generosity of this act of philanthropy, her will foresaw the holding of an annual banquet for theordo decurionum to be financed by her inheritors on the anniversary of the dedication of the temple. At the same time, Gabinia Hermiona bequeathed the land for the circus "for the pleasure of the people".
The temple occupied what was doubtlessly one of the last free spaces in the vicinity of the forum. The temple's benefactor preferred this site in the city center to those that she owned in the outskirts: the site of the circus or the site where the Temple of Celeste was later built.[93] Gabinia's family, one of the richest in Dougga, was well placed within Carthage's notables and maintained its power at Dougga, even during the reduction of the local aristocracy in the 3rd century. The terms of Gabinia's will provide evidence of her concern that the family should endure - the annual banquet would keep alive the memory of the family's generosity and emphasize its sociability, while the circus would provide for the pleasure of the most humble of the city's inhabitants.
At the end of the 4th century, the Temple of Caracalla's Victory in Germany was transformed into achurch. The reservoirs in the courtyard were filled in order to provide space for the faithful, while pulpits were added to the cella. The decoration of the cella was also modified.[93]
Pluto receives particular honor at Dougga as the city's patron divinity, as demonstrated by theGenius Thuggae.[96]
It is possible that the Temple of Pluto is located near Septimius Severus's triumphal arch in an area of the city that has only been partially excavated as yet,[97] but this hypothesis is not very firm and is based on the discovery of a bust in a courtyard,[96] which has been dated byPoinssot to the 2nd or 3rd century. The associated building was excavated in the 1960s but little is known about the manner in which the excavation was conducted and the stabilization work carried out at the site.[97] A cella with just one niche has been discovered on a podium in the middle of a courtyard and the altar has also been preserved.
An architectural study was carried out between 2000 and 2002, but it did not lead to any excavation work.
Saturn was the successor of the PunicBa'al Hammon and was the attendant (paredros) ofTanit orHeavenly Juno (Juno Caelestis). During the Roman era, the city of Dougga had at least two sanctuaries dedicated to Saturn.[98] The evidence for the existence of one of the two derives mostly from inscriptions found in the city.[99][100] The second temple, which is the one commonly known as the Temple of Saturn at Dougga, has been excavated. The remains of this temple, which are less significant than those of the capitol or the Temple of Juno Caelestis, are of particular interest because of their location. The ruins lie atop apromontory that overlooks the richcereal valley of the Oued Khalled, 160 m (520 ft) from the theater and outside the bounds of the city. During the excavation works, remains of a temple of Ba'al Hammon, particularly ritual ditches (favissae) containingex-votos, were discovered. The Roman temple thus replaced an indigenous sanctuary that dated back at least to the 2nd century BC. This sanctuary consisted essentially of a wide open space designed to receive ex-votos and sacrifices.[101] It was covered over to facilitate the construction of the Temple of Saturn, the ruins of which can still be seen today.
The Roman temple was built during the reign of Septimius Severus. It consists of threecellae, a courtyard with aportico, and avestibule.[102] Water from the temple roof was collected in cisterns. An inscription provides details about the temple's construction: it was erected using funds bequeathed in the testament of a notable local resident named Lucius Octavius Victor Roscianus at a cost of at least 150,000sestertii,[103] which seems expensive but may be explained by the extent of the earthworks required to give the temple a solid foundation;[104] these works nonetheless seem to have proven insufficient as work to restore and shore up the edifice appear to have been carried out before it finally fell into ruin.[105]
TheTemple of Juno Caelestis, which was built on the outskirts of the city, was described in the 17th century and excavated in the 1890s. Significant restoration work was undertaken between 1904 and 1914, and new studies were carried out between 1999 and 2002.[106]
The temple is dedicated to Heavenly Juno (Juno Caelestis), the successor of the Punic godTanit. Its well-preservedtemenos is demarcated by a wall, a large section of which has been very well preserved. The court is only partially tiled and has two symmetrical doors. A portico with 25bays runs along the circular section of the temenos. The portico is topped with afrieze depicting the construction of the temple.[106]
The temple in the strict sense of the word stands on a high podium that can be accessed via a series of eleven steps. It is aCorinthianhexastyleperipteros. Thepediment features a dedication toAlexander Severus. Thecella has been completely lost.[107]
The temple, which was erected between AD 222 and 235,[106] was paid for by a certain Q. Gabinius Rufus Felix, who donatedinter alia two silver statues of Juno Caelestis that cost 35,000sestertii.[70]
The temenos, which is 52 m (171 ft) in diameter,[86] is reminiscent of acrescent moon, the symbol of Juno Caelestis.
The purpose of the edifice known as Dar Lacheb (Latin:Domus Lachebia, "House of Lacheb") has not been clearly identified.St-Amans believes that it is a sanctuary dedicated toAesculapius, which accords withPoinssot's hypothesis that it is a temple.[108]
Dar Lacheb was excavated at the end of the 19th century byCarton and has not been the subject of further works since 1912.[109] A house that was built nearby re-using antique remains was destroyed at the start of the 20th century.
Dar Lacheb was built between AD 164 and 166, at the same era as the capitol, which is 50 m (160 ft) away. The entrance to the building has been perfectly preserved, as has one of the columns of the entrance porch. The interior consists of a courtyard that was once surrounded with a portico. To the south is the cella of a temple that has been entirely destroyed.[110]
TheVictoria Church, which stands in the northeast of the site, below the Temple of Saturn, is the only Christian building that has been so far excavated at Dougga. At the end of the 4th century or at the start of the 5th century, the Christian community erected the unusually designed littlechurch over apagancemetery.[111] The smallhypogeum is located nearby.
During antiquity, Thugga was also theseat of thebishop ofThucca Terenbenthina. Thebishopric was founded during theRoman Empire and survived through theArianVandal Kingdom andOrthodoxByzantine Empire, only ceasing to function with theMuslim conquest of the Maghreb. The diocese was re-founded by theRoman Catholic Church as atitular see in the 20th century.[112]
Dougga has two networks of cisterns, in the north and in the west, one of which is particularly well preserved. Anaqueduct leading to the city, located a short distance from the well-preserved cisterns, is amongst the best preserved examples of this type of structure on the territory of modern-day Tunisia.
The six cisterns of Aïn El Hammam, situated close to the Temple of Juno Caelestis, have a total capacity of 6000 m3 but are in ruins. They were fed by a spring 12 km (7.5 mi) away and an aqueduct constructed during the reign ofCommodus and restored in the last quarter of the 4th century CE.[113]
This site is still used once annually for a festival celebrating Mokhola, who was a female saint and benefactor of Moroccan origin according to local oral tradition[114][115][116] The veneration of Mokhola is accompanied with animal sacrifices. It has been shown that this tradition has pagan origins; the object of veneration was originally the spring, known asfons moccolitanus[117][118]
The second network of cisterns, the cisterns of Aïn Mizeb, is very well preserved. Located close to the Temple ofMinerva, these eight domed reservoirs can hold 9,000 m3 (320,000 cu ft) and feature a basin into which they decant.[119] The cisterns are fed by a spring located 200 m (660 ft) away connected via an underground aqueduct.[120]
A final network of secondary cisterns is located in the vicinity of the Aïn Doura Bath, in the south-west of the site.
Dougga's streets are not laid out as prescribed by the normal theoretical model of a Roman settlement—around acardo and adecumanus—as a result of the city's unique design.
The center of the city was probably paved; the streets resembled meandering lanes. The city had sewers, as is evidenced by the access stones that are still in place in the streets. At the foot of the hill, there are traces of streets joining with the main road fromCarthage toTheveste[53]
The site at Dougga has offered up numerous works or art, many of which have been removed and placed in museums, most notably theBardo National Museum inTunis.
Few works of art have been left on site, with the exception of a sculpture of atogate man (togatus) at the "Square of theRose of the Winds" and a number ofmosaics, including those in the building known as the house of Venus and in particular at the Aïn Doura Bath. This is a consequence of the discovery of Dougga's works of art at a time when archaeological sites were robbed of their treasures and abandoned after a dig. This approach has made it possible to preserve a certain number of mosaics with their colours intact; other mosaics that were uncovered but not removed have suffered due to their exposure to the elements.
A proposal to construct a museum on the site is being studied. It would serve in particular to house recent discoveries and those yet to be made.
A number of heads of emperors have been discovered during the digs at the site. Amongst these, the portrait ofLucius Verus is particularly noteworthy: he is depicted with a generous head of hair, a full beard and a vivacity that makes it one of the most significant statues yet discovered in Roman Africa. This African masterpiece was realized in marble fromCarrara and still has traces of color amongst the hairs.[121]
TheBardo National Museum also houses atogate man (togatus) that dates from the 3rd century. It depicts an aged man, who has a short beard and is dressed in a toga. It seems certain that this is a later work of art reflective of the contemporary taste in art.[121]
The "butler's mosaic" dating from the middle of the 3rd century features a drinking scene. Two characters are serving two others, who are much smaller, fromamphoras on their shoulders. The two amphoras bear the lettersΡΙΕ (Rie, "Drink!" inAncient Greek) andΖΗϹΗϹ (Zēsēs, "You will live!"). The amphora bearers are flanked by another two characters, one of whom is carrying another amphora, the other of whom is carrying a branch oflaurel and a basket ofroses. This depiction is a greeting to all guests and a promise of hospitality.[122] The same is true of another mosaic held at the museum which bears the phraseOmnia tibi felicia ("May everything please you").
The "mosaic of the victorious charioteer" is younger than these works. It dates from the second half of the 4th century, and features the phraseEros omnia per te ("All things through you, Eros"). The depiction of the charioteer shows great attention to realism, as do the depictions of the horses, two of which are named Amandus and Frunitus[clarification needed] after their characters. The horses are arranged symmetrically; such symmetries were very popular at the time. The charioteer is holding awhip, acrown made of branches and apalm branch. The starting blocks of thecircus can be seen in the background. This work of art was found in a private residence and it appears that it must be interpreted as a monument donated by the owner celebrating the victory of a charioteer named Eros.[123]
The "Ulysses mosaic" is a work inspired by theOdyssey: the Greek heroOdysseus (Ulysses to the Romans) is seen standing on a boat that is decorated with a human head and a palm branch and that has two sails and a battering ram. Ulysses's hands are tied to the main mast so that he will not succumb to the fatal charm of thesirens' music. Ulysses's companions are seated around him, their ears blocked withwax as described in the legend. Three sirens stand at the base of a rocky crag. They are depicted with the upper body of a woman but the wings and legs of a bird. One of them holds aflute, the second alyre, while the third, who does not carry an instrument, is believed to be the singing siren. In front of Ulysses's boat, there is a smallbarque with a fisherman holding alobster, the depiction of which is over-sized. The mosaic has been dated to around AD 260–268; it was discovered in the "House of Ulysses and the Pirates".[124]
The mosaic "Neptune and the pirates" originates from the sameperistyle as the preceding work. It depicts the punishment of pirates on theTyrrhenian Sea, merging themes linked toDionysus and more common marine themes. The god is standing, ready to throw his spear. He is supported by amaenad, asatyr and agedSilenus, who is holding the ship'srudder. Aleopard is attacking one of the pirates, who are transformed into dolphins as soon as they recognize the divine nature of their adversary. To the left,genii have boarded another ship, while to the right, fishermen are attempting to catch anoctopus with a net.[125]
Yacoub attributes a protective function to these two scenes, a means of invoking fate, a practice which is probably based on Hellenic tradition.[126]
The mosaic of the "cyclopses forging Jupiter's thunderbolts" from the floor of afrigidarium depicts threecyclopses: Brontes, Steropes, and Pyracmon or Arges. They are depicted naked, forgingJupiter's thunderbolts, whichVulcan, seated in front of them, is holding on ananvil. This last element has been lost. The mosaic dates to the end of the 3rd century and was discovered in the "Bath of the Cyclopses".[127]
Thebilingual inscription from the mausoleum taken by the British consul Read is held by theBritish Museum. ThePunic-Libyan Inscription shows the same text in both thePunic and theBerber languages.
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