Dominion of New Zealand | |||||||||||||||||
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| 1907–1947[note 1] | |||||||||||||||||
| Motto: "Onward" | |||||||||||||||||
| Anthem: "God Save the King" | |||||||||||||||||
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| Status | Dominion of theBritish Empire | ||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Wellington | ||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | English,Māori | ||||||||||||||||
| Demonyms | British, New Zealander | ||||||||||||||||
| Government | Unitaryparliamentary constitutional monarchy | ||||||||||||||||
| Monarch | |||||||||||||||||
• 1907–1910 | Edward VII | ||||||||||||||||
• 1910–1936 | George V | ||||||||||||||||
• 1936 | Edward VIII | ||||||||||||||||
• 1936–1947 | George VI | ||||||||||||||||
| Governor/Governor-General | |||||||||||||||||
• 1907–1910 | The 5th Baron Plunket (first) | ||||||||||||||||
• 1946–1947 | Sir Bernard Freyberg (last) | ||||||||||||||||
| Prime Minister | |||||||||||||||||
• 1907–1912 | Sir Joseph Ward (first) | ||||||||||||||||
• 1940–1947 | Peter Fraser (last) | ||||||||||||||||
| Legislature | General Assembly (Parliament) | ||||||||||||||||
• Upper house | Legislative Council | ||||||||||||||||
• Lower house | House of Representatives | ||||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||||
| 26 September 1907 | |||||||||||||||||
| 25 November 1947[note 1] | |||||||||||||||||
| Currency | New Zealand pound[note 2] | ||||||||||||||||
| ISO 3166 code | NZ | ||||||||||||||||
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TheDominion of New Zealand was the historical successor to theColony of New Zealand. It was aconstitutional monarchy with a high level of self-government within theBritish Empire.
New Zealand became a separate BritishCrown colony in 1841 and receivedresponsible government with theConstitution Act in 1852. New Zealand chose not to take part in theFederation of Australia and became the Dominion of New Zealand on 26 September 1907,Dominion Day, by proclamation of KingEdward VII.Dominion status was a public mark of the political independence that had evolved over half a century through responsible government.
Just under one million people lived in New Zealand in 1907 and cities such asAuckland andWellington were growing rapidly.[1] The Dominion of New Zealand allowed the British Government to shape its foreign policy, and it followed Britain into theFirst World War. The 1923 and 1926Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties, and the firstcommercial treaty was ratified in 1928 withJapan. When theSecond World War broke out in 1939 the New Zealand Government made its own decision to enter the war.
In thepost-war period, the term 'dominion' has fallen into disuse.Sovereignty on external affairs was granted with theStatute of Westminster in 1931 andadopted by the New Zealand Parliament in 1947. The 1907 royal proclamation of dominion status has never been revoked,[2][3] although legal academics differ as to whether the proclamation can be said to be in force.[4]
The alteration in status was stirred by a sentiment on the part of the prime ministers of theself-governing colonies of theBritish Empire that a new term was necessary to differentiate them from the non-self-governing colonies. At the1907 Imperial Conference, it was argued that self-governing colonies that were not styled 'dominion' (like Canada) or 'commonwealth' (like Australia) should be designated by some such title as 'state of the empire'.[5] After much debate overlexicon, the term 'dominion' was decided upon.[5]
Following the 1907 conference, theNew Zealand House of Representatives passed a motion requesting that King Edward VII "take such steps as he may consider necessary"[6] to change the designation of New Zealand from theColony of New Zealand to theDominion of New Zealand.[7]
The adoption of the designation of dominion would, "raise the status of New Zealand" stated Prime Minister SirJoseph Ward and "… have no other effect than that of doing the country good".[8] Ward also had regional imperial ambitions. He hoped the new designation would remind the world that New Zealand was not part of Australia. It would dignify New Zealand, a country he thought was "the natural centre for the government of the South Pacific".[9]
Dominion status was strongly opposed byLeader of the OppositionWilliam Massey, an ardent Britishimperialist, who suspected that the change would lead to demands for increases inviceregal and ministerial salaries.[9]
Aroyal proclamation granting New Zealand the designation of 'dominion' was issued on 9 September 1907. On 26 September the Prime Minister, Sir Joseph Ward, read the proclamation from the steps of Parliament:
Edward R. & I. Whereas We have on the Petition of the Members of the Legislative Council and House of Representatives of Our Colony of New Zealand determined that the title of Dominion of New Zealand shall be substituted for that of the Colony of New Zealand as the designation of the said Colony, We have therefore by and with the advice of Our Privy Council thought fit to issue this Our Royal Proclamation and We do ordain, declare and command that on and after the twenty-sixth day of September, one thousand nine hundred and seven, the said Colony of New Zealand and the territory belonging thereto shall be called and known by the title of the Dominion of New Zealand. And We hereby give Our Commands to all Public Departments accordingly. Given at Our Court at Buckingham Palace, this ninth day of September, in the year of Our Lord one thousand nine hundred and seven, and in the seventh year of Our Reign.God save theKing[10]
With the attaining of dominion status, the colonial treasurer became theminister of finance and theColonial Secretary's Office was renamed theDepartment of Internal Affairs. The proclamation of 10 September also designated members of the House of Representatives as "M.P." (Member of Parliament). Previously they were designated "M.H.R." (Member of the House of Representatives).[11]
Letters patent were issued to confirm New Zealand's change in status, declaring that: "there shall be a Governor and Commander-in-Chief in and over Our Dominion of New Zealand".[12][failed verification] Dominion status allowed New Zealand to become virtually independent, while retaining the British monarch ashead of state, represented by agovernor appointed in consultation with the New Zealand Government. Control over defence, constitutional amendments, and (partially) foreign affairs remained with the British Government.[12][failed verification]
Joseph Ward had thought that New Zealanders would be "much gratified" with the new title. Dominion status was in fact received with limited enthusiasm or indifference from the general public,[9] who were unable to discern any practical difference.[13][failed verification] Dominion status symbolised New Zealand's shift to self-governance, but this change had been practically accomplished with the firstresponsible government in the 1850s.[13][failed verification]
HistorianKeith Sinclair later remarked:
… the change of title, for which there had been no demand, produced little public interest. It was largely regarded as Ward's personal show … it was merely cosmetic.[9]
According to DameSilvia Cartwright, 18th Governor-General of New Zealand, in a 2001 speech:
This event passed relatively unheralded. It attracted little comment. This illustrates that what may appear as a constitutional landmark, particularly from this point in time needs to be seen in its context. And so, although new Letters Patent and Royal Instructions were issued in 1907, and the requirement to reserve certain classes of Bill for His Majesty's pleasure was omitted, New Zealand certainly didn't embrace dominion status with the vigour of a young nation intent on independence.[14]
Thenational flag, depicting the BritishUnion Flag, remained the same.[15] Until 1911 New Zealand used theroyal coat of arms of the United Kingdom on all official documents and public buildings, but following its new status a newcoat of arms for New Zealand was designed. A royal warrant granting armorial ensigns and supports was issued on 26 August 1911 and published in theNew Zealand Gazette on 11 January 1912.[16]
For a further decade, until 1917, theviceroy retained the title 'governor'; letters patent were issued re-designating the viceroy as 'governor-general' (as in other dominions). The new title better reflected New Zealand's prestige within the British Empire. The 1917 letters patent constituted the office, with the officeholder described as 'Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief in and over Our Dominion of New Zealand'.[17]
Despite the new status, there was some apprehension in 1919 when Prime Minister Bill Massey signed theTreaty of Versailles (giving New Zealand membership of theLeague of Nations). This act was a turning point in New Zealand's diplomatic history, indicating that the dominion had a degree of control over its foreign affairs.[18] Massey himself did not view it as a symbolic act and would have preferred New Zealand to maintain a deferential role within the empire.[18]
To mark the granting of dominion status, 26 September was declared Dominion Day.[5]
Today, it is observed only as aProvincial Anniversary Day holiday inSouth Canterbury. There is support in some quarters for the day to be revived as an alternative New Zealand Day, instead of renamingWaitangi Day, New Zealand's current national day.[19]
The Antarctic territory of theRoss Dependency, previously under the sovereignty of the United Kingdom, is today regarded by New Zealand as having become part of the Dominion of New Zealand on 16 August 1923.[20] The legality of that contemporary assertion has been questioned[21] but is nonetheless the position of New Zealand.
TheCook Islands andNiue each already formed part of the Dominion of New Zealand on the date it was proclaimed. Both had become part of theColony of New Zealand on 11 June 1901.[22]Western Samoa was never part of New Zealand, having instead been the subject of aLeague of Nations mandate and subsequently aUnited Nations Trusteeship agreement. In 1982 theJudicial Committee of the Privy Council allowed Samoans born under New Zealand administration (i.e. prior to 1962) to claim New Zealand citizenship.[23]
The1926 Imperial Conference devised the 'Balfour formula' of dominion status, stating that:
The United Kingdom and the Dominions are autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth
The Balfour Report further resolved that each respective governor-general occupied "the same position in relation to the administration of public affairs in the Dominion" as was held by the monarch in the United Kingdom.[25] Consequently, the only advisers to the governor-general (and themonarch in New Zealand) were hisNew Zealand ministers.
Prime MinisterGordon Coates, who led the New Zealand delegation to the conference, called the Balfour Declaration a "poisonous document" that would weaken the British Empire as a whole.[2]
In 1931, theBritish (Imperial) Parliament passed theStatute of Westminster, which repealed the imperialColonial Laws Validity Act and gave effect to resolutions passed by the imperial conferences of 1926 and1930. It essentially gave legal recognition to the "de facto sovereignty" of the dominions by removing Britain's ability to make laws for the dominions without their consent:[26]
No Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed after the commencement of this Act shall extend, or be deemed to extend, to a Dominion as part of the law of that Dominion, unless it is expressly declared in that Act that that Dominion has requested, and consented to, the enactment thereof.
— Statute of Westminster, Section 4.[27]
New Zealand initially viewed the Statute of Westminster as an "unnecessary legal complication that it perceived would weaken imperial relations."[28] The New Zealand Government only allowed the Dominion of New Zealand to be cited in the statute provided that the operative sections did not apply unless adopted by theNew Zealand Parliament.[29] Preferring the British Government to handle most of its foreign affairs and defence, New Zealand held back from adopting the Statute of Westminster Act.[30]
TheFirst Labour Government (1935–1949) pursued a more independent path in foreign affairs, in spite of the statute remaining unadopted.[29] In 1938 Deputy Prime MinisterPeter Fraser told Parliament, "this country has to make up its own mind on international problems as a sovereign country – because under the Statute of Westminster ours is a sovereign country".[29] In the 1944Speech from the Throne the Governor-General announced the government's intention to adopt the Statute of Westminster.[31] It was forced to abandon the proposal when the opposition accused the government of being disloyal to Britain ata time of need.[31] Ironically, theNational opposition prompted the adoption of the statute in 1947 when its leader, and future prime minister,Sidney Holland introduced amember's bill to abolish theLegislative Council.[29] Because New Zealand required the consent of the British Parliament to make the necessary amendments to theNew Zealand Constitution Act 1852, Peter Fraser, now Prime Minister, had a reason to finally adopt the statute.[31] It was formally adopted on 25 November 1947 with theStatute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947, along with consenting legislation from the British Parliament.[30]
New Zealand was the last dominion listed in the statute to adopt it.[30]
After theSecond World War, the countryjoined the United Nations as simply "New Zealand".[7] A year later in 1946, Prime MinisterPeter Fraser instructed government departments not to use the term 'dominion' any longer.[32]
One of the first marks of New Zealand'ssovereignty was the alteration of the monarch's title by theRoyal Titles Act 1953. For the first time, the monarch's official New Zealand title mentioned New Zealand separately from the United Kingdom and the other dominions, now calledRealms:
Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Her Other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.
— Royal Titles Act 1953 (NZ), s 2; Royal Titles Proclamation (1953) II New Zealand Gazette 851
The name of the state in official usage was also changed to theRealm of New Zealand.[2][note 4] The term 'dominion' largely fell into disuse over the next decade.[2] The term persisted the longest in the names of institutions (for instance, the Dominion Museum was not renamed theNational Museum until 1972),[33] businesses, and in the constitutions of clubs and societies.The Dominion Post, a newspaper formed by a merger ofThe Dominion (first published on 26 September 1907,[34] the day New Zealand achieved dominion status) andThe Evening Post, dropped "Dominion" to becomeThe Post as late as April 2023.[35]
The change in style did not otherwise affect the legal status of New Zealand or its Government; the 1907 royal proclamation of dominion status has never been revoked and remains in force today. As such, the term 'dominion' may be included in the formal title of New Zealand.[2][3]
Nevertheless, the opinion of the New Zealand Government is that New Zealand became sovereign on foreign issues in 1947: "…both in terms of gaining formal legal control over the conduct of its foreign policy and the attainment of constitutional and plenary powers by its legislature".[6] In passing theConstitution Act 1986 (effective 1 January 1987), New Zealand "unilaterally revoked all residual United Kingdom legislative power".[36] Legal academicsDame Alison Quentin-Baxter andJanet McLean argue the 1907 proclamation should be regarded as "spent", albeit not revoked.[4]
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