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The office of theDomestic of the Schools (Greek:δομέστικος τῶν σχολῶν,romanized: doméstikos tôn scholôn) was a senior military post of theByzantine Empire, extant from the 8th century until at least the early 14th century. Originally simply the commander of theScholai, the senior of the elitetagmata regiments, the Domestic quickly rose in prominence: by the mid-9th century, its holders essentially occupied the position of commander-in-chief of theByzantine army, next to theEmperor. The office was eclipsed in the 12th century by that of theGrand Domestic, and in thePalaiologan period (13th–15th centuries), it was reduced to a purely honorary, mid-level court dignity.
The first holder of the office of Domestic of the Schools first appears in the sources (the chronicle ofTheophanes the Confessor) for the year 767,[1] shortly after the creation of thetagmata. These were elite cavalry regiments stationed in or around the capitalConstantinople, commanded by officers titled "Domestics" (δομέστικοι,domestikoi) and distinct from the provincial armies of thethemes under their respectivestratēgoi.[2] The Schools (Latin:scholae;Greek:σχολαὶ,scholai) was the seniortagma, tracing their origin to theScholae Palatinae established byConstantine the Great (r. 306–337) and originally placed under the command of themagister officiorum.[3] The historianJ.B. Bury has traced a reference to a certain Anianos, "Domestic of themagister", in theChronicon Paschale for the year 624, and considers this official to be the predecessor of the Domestic of the Schools. As themagister officiorum was gradually deprived of some of his functions in the 7th and 8th centuries, the Domestic apparently became an independent official.[1][4][5] TheKletorologion of 899 lists his subordinate officials as comprising his deputy ortopotērētēs (τοποτηρητής), the secretary orchartoularios (χαρτουλάριος), the head messenger orproximos (πρόξιμος) and the other messengers (μανδάτορες,mandatores), as well as the various subordinate officers of the regiment (cf. the article on theScholae Palatinae).[6]
In the 9th century, the office of the Domestic, or "Domesticate" (δομεστικάτον,domestikaton), of the Schools rose in importance and its holder was often appointed as the head of the army in the absence of the emperor. However, this role was not yet enshrined: it depended rather on the abilities of the current Domestic, and other generals of inferior rank were sometimes entrusted with supreme command instead. The Domestic of the Schools nevertheless rose to such prominence that the sources frequently speak of the office as "the Domestic" without further qualification, and the power and influence of the post saw it frequently occupied by persons closely related to the emperor. From the time ofMichael III (r. 842–867) on, the Domestic ranked in the imperial hierarchy above all other military commanders except for thestratēgos of theAnatolic Theme. In practice, he quickly became senior even to the latter, as demonstrated by the fact that military leaders likeNikephoros Phokas andJohn Tzimiskes were promoted from the generalship of the Anatolics to the Domesticate.[7][8]
In the reign ofRomanos II (r. 959–963) the post was split, with a "Domestic of the West" (δομέστικος τῆς δύσεως,domestikos tēs dyseōs) and a "Domestic of the East" (δομέστικος τῆς ἀνατολῆς,domestikos tēs anatolēs) being created for operations in Europe and Asia respectively.[4][9][10][11] The command of the Schools regiment then passed to the Domestic's deputy, thetopotērētēs, although it appears that by that time there were several officers occupying that position at the same time.[12] The ceremony for the Domestic's appointment is described in theDe Ceremoniis (II.3);[9][13] the same work describes his duties and role in court ceremonies.[14]
With some exceptions, most notably the unparalleled 22-year tenure ofJohn Kourkouas, or in times of domestic instability, Domestics were changed on the average every three to four years.[15] During the 10th century, the Domesticate of the Schools was dominated by members of thePhokas family, which produced six holders of the office.[16] Their attempts to monopolize the office led a series of emperors, concerned over the power of the military aristocracy, to entrust the potentially over-powerful office to non-military court officials, including—especially in the first half of the 11th century, before the military aristocracy reasserted its authority—toeunuchs,[17][18] even though this was in theory forbidden, with the alternate office ofstratopedarches having been created for this purpose.[19][20]
In the 10th and 11th centuries, the variant "Grand Domestic" (μέγας δομέστικος,megas domestikos) appears sporadically, used in parallel with other variants such as "Grand Domestic of the Schools" or "Grand Domestic of the East/West" for the same person.[21] The ByzantinistRodolphe Guilland considers most of these early references either as anachronistic references by 12th-century writers, or simply cases where "megas" is used as an honorific prefix, as was the norm with other senior offices during this period, like theDrungary of the Watch or theDomestic of the Excubitors. Nevertheless, Guilland argues that from the time ofAlexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) on, the "Grand Domestic" became a separate office, senior to the "plain" Domestics of the Schools and in effect the new commander-in-chief of the army beside the Emperor. However, the usage of the titles is not consistent, and the habitual division of command between East and West seems to have been sometimes applied to the Grand Domesticate as well during the 12th century, causing some confusion as to the nature of the office and its relation to the "plain" Domestic. In the 13th century however the two titles became clearly distinct: the Grand Domestic was the commander-in-chief of the entire army and one of the highest offices of state, while the Domestic of the Schools was relegated to a simple dignity without duties, awarded to provincial governors and other middle-ranking officials.[22][23][24] In the words of the mid-14th centuryBook of Offices ofPseudo-Kodinos, "the Domestic of the Schools once had an office similar to that of the Grand Domestic currently, but he now holds none".[25]
In Pseudo-Kodinos' work, the Domestic of the Schools ranks 31st in the imperial hierarchy, between themystikos and theGrand Drungary of the Fleet.[26] The Domestic's distinctive court dress, as reported by Pseudo-Kodinos, consisted of a gold-brocaded hat (skiadion), a plain silkkabbadion tunic and a silver staff (dikanikion) with a knob on top and another in the middle. For ceremonies and festivities, he bore the domedskaranikon, of lemon-yellow silk and decorated with gold wire embroidery, and with a portrait of the emperor seated on a throne in front and another with the emperor on horseback on the rear.[14][27]
| Name | Tenure | Appointed by | Notes | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antony | c. 767 –c. 780 | Constantine V | Apatrikios and staunchiconoclast and close aide of Constantine V, he remained in office until the early regency ofIrene of Athens | [28] |
| Bardanios | c. 795/796 | Irene of Athens | Apatrikios, probably the same asBardanes Tourkos. | [29] |
| Peter | c. 797 – 802 | Irene of Athens orNikephoros I | Son of apatrikios and apatrikios himself, little is known of his career. He was named to the post by Irene of Athens (some modern sources name Nikephoros I instead), and became domestic of theHikanatoi under Nikephoros. He was taken captive at the Battle of Pliska, becoming a monk afterwards. He was canonized by the church. Kühn suggests that "Peter" may have been themonastic name of the aforementioned Stephen. | [29][30][31] |
| Niketas Triphyllios | c. 797 – 803 | Irene of Athens | Apatrikios, he supported the eunuchAetios and later the usurpation ofNikephoros I, but died soon after, perhaps poisoned on the latter's orders, on 30 April 803. | [29][30] |
| Stephen | c. 811 | Nikephoros I | Apatrikios, he survived the disastrousBattle of Pliska and managed to enforce the succession of Nikephoros' sonStaurakios. | [29][30] |
| Anonymous | c. 813 | Michael I Rhangabe | An unnamed "grand domestic", likely a reference to a Domestic of the Schools, is mentioned by theScriptor Incertus after theBattle of Versinikia. | [30] |
| Manuel the Armenian | 829–858? | Theophilos | An experienced general, he was given the post along with the title ofmagistros after returning from a defection to the Arabs. He participated in several campaigns against the Arabs. Some sources claim he died in 838 following theBattle of Anzen, but other sources claim that he lived long after that and became regent for the youngMichael III. | [30][32][33] |
| Bardas | 858–861/2 | Michael III | Uncle of Michael III, he was appointedmagistros and Domestic of the Schools after the banishment of the Empress-dowagerTheodora. Promoted tokouropalatēs and eventuallyCaesar, as the virtual regent of the Empire he rarely exercised his military function, which he delegated to his son Antigonos and his brotherPetronas. | [34][35] |
| Antigonos | 861/2 865–866 | Michael III | Son of theCaesar Bardas, he had been conferred the Domesticate as an honorary appointment already at the age of nine or ten years. He succeeded his uncle Petronas as regular Domestic after the latter's retirement and death, but was unable to prevent the murder of his father byBasil the Macedonian and was removed from his post after that. | [36][37] |
| Petronas | 863–865 | Michael III | Uncle of Michael III and an active general. He exercised the high command in place of his brother Bardas and was raised to the Domesticate and the rank ofmagistros following his victory over the Arabs at theBattle of Lalakaon. He retired to a monastery soon after. | [34][35] |
| Marianos | c. 867 | Basil I the Macedonian | Brother of Basil I, he took part in Michael III's assassination and died soon after; his tomb at the convent of St. Euphemia and a seal of office record his post as a Domestic of the Schools. He was alsologothetēs tōn agelōn and bore the rank ofanthypatos patrikios. | [36][38] |
| Christopher | 872 | Basil I the Macedonian | Son-in-law of Basil I and amagistros, little is known of him except that he led the Byzantine forces to victory over thePaulicians at theBattle of Bathys Ryax. | [36][39] |
| Andrew the Scythian | c. 877 – 883 884 – 887/8 | Basil I the Macedonian | Of unknown (possibly Slavic/Russian) origin, he was named Domestic,patrikios andmagistros following his exploits against the Arabs. Dismissed following court intrigues, he was reinstated after his successor was routed by the Arabs and retained the post into the early reign ofLeo VI the Wise, probably up to his death in 887/8. | [40][41][42] |
| Kesta Styppiotes | 883/4 | Basil I the Macedonian | Probably hailing fromŠtip, he was defeated and possibly killed nearTarsus byYazaman al-Khadim, soon after his appointment, leading to the reinstatement of Andrew the Scythian. | [43][42] |
| Nikephoros Phokas the Elder | 887/8 – 893/4 | Leo VI the Wise | Celebrated for his exploits in southern Italy, he was named to the Domesticate after the death of Andrew the Scythian and served, mostly in the East, probably until 893/4 (or possibly 895). | [43][44][45] |
| Leo Katakalon | 893/4 – 900s | Leo VI the Wise | A commander of the palace guard and relative of PatriarchPhotios. After succeeding Nikephoros Phokas, he led the Byzantine army to successful expeditions in the east, and then in the disastrousBattle of Boulgarophygon in 896, but survived and continued in office until the early 900s (decade). | [46][47][48] |
| Andronikos Doukas | c. 904–906 | Leo VI the Wise | He was appointed to the Domesticate before or after scoring a victory over the Arabs atGermanikeia in 904, and was dismissed following the court intrigues ofSamonas the eunuch. He fled to the Arabs, where he died in captivityc. 910. | [49][50][51] |
| Gregoras Iberitzes | c. 907/8 | Leo VI the Wise | Iberitzes appears in 906, when he was sent against the fortress held by Andronikos Doukas and his family; a relative of the Doukai, he took part in the attempted usurpation ofConstantine Doukas in 913 and wastonsured and exiled. | [48][50] |
| Constantine Doukas | c. 913 | Leo VI the Wise | The son of Andronikos Doukas, he escaped from Arab captivity and was restored to high military office by Leo. In 913, as Domestic of the Schools, he attempted to usurp the throne from Leo's infant sonConstantine VII, but failed and was killed. | [46][49][52] |
| Leo Phokas | unknown first tenure, c. 916 – 919 | Leo VI the Wise, Constantine VII | Leo served as Domestic for the first time sometime under Leo VI, and again, with the rank ofmagistros, during much of the regency of EmpressZoe. He led the Byzantine forces in the disastrousBattle of Acheloos in 917, but survived. He was dismissed from the Domesticate by Constantine VII at the urging of PatriarchNicholas Mystikos and then outmanoeuvred in the struggle for control of the throne byRomanos Lekapenos. After launching an unsuccessful revolt, he was captured and blinded. | [53][54] |
| John Garidas | 919 | Constantine VII | An old officer in theHetaireia, he replaced Leo Phokas in 919. | [54][55] |
| Adralestos | c. 920/1 | Romanos I Lekapenos | Adralestos was Domestic in the early years of Romanos I's reign, but died shortly after his appointment. | [54][55] |
| Pothos Argyros | 920/1–922 | Romanos I Lekapenos | Pothos Argyros replaced Adralestos after the latter's death. He participated in theBattle of Pegae (922) but escaped. He was possibly dismissed as responsible the defeat. | [55][56] |
| Leo Argyros | unknown, possibly 922 | Romanos I Lekapenos (?) | Younger brother of Pothos Argyros, he served as military commander already under Leo VI. It is known that he wasmagistros and held the post of Domestic, but not when. R. Guilland speculates that this was either in the early years of Romanos I's reign or after the latter's fall. Hans-Joachim Kühn considers that he followed his brother for a short period. | [57][58] |
| John Kourkouas | 922–944 | Romanos I Lekapenos | One of the closest associates of Romanos I, Kourkouas held the Domesticate for 22 years and seven months. He led numerous campaigns against the Arabs which resulted in the conquest ofMelitene and the recovery of theMandylion fromEdessa. He was dismissed after the sons of Romanos I toppled their father from power in December 944. | [58][59][60] |
| Pantherios | 944 | Stephen Lekapenos, Constantine Lekapenos | Appointed in place of John Kourkouas by Romanos I's sons, his tenure was short-lived as Constantine VII overthrew them and assumed sole power. | [58][61] |
| Bardas Phokas | 945–954 | Constantine VII | A distinguished general and brother of Leo Phokas, he was sidelined under Romanos I. He supported Constantine VII's coup against the Lekapenoi and was namedmagistros and Domestic in return. His military record was poor however, suffering several defeats at the hands ofSayf al-Dawla, and he was replaced by his sonNikephoros in 954. When Nikephoros came to the throne he made his fatherCaesar. | [62][63] |
| Nikephoros Phokas | 954–963 | Constantine VII | He succeeded his father in the Domesticate, and scored several successes against the Arabs: the sack ofAdata in 957, the reconquest ofCrete in 960–961 and victories against theHamdanids in 962–963. In 963, following the death ofRomanos II, he rose to the throne. He was murdered in 969 byJohn Tzimiskes. | [63][64][65] |
| Leo Phokas | 959–963 | Romanos II | Younger brother of Nikephoros II, he occupied senior military posts under Constantine VII, while Romanos II named him as the first Domestic of the West. In 960–961 he replaced his brother in the East during the Cretan campaign, and defeatedSayf al-Dawla. When Nikephoros came to the throne he made himkouropalatēs a head minister. Following the murder of Nikephoros, he conspired repeatedly against Tzimiskes and was blinded and exiled. | [66][67] |
| John Tzimiskes | 963 – ? | Nikephoros II Phokas | Nephew and close aide to Nikephoros Phokas, he was promoted to Domestic of the East on the latter's accession, but was later dismissed. He murdered Nikephoros II in December 969 and reigned as emperor until his death in 976. | [68][69] |
| Romanos Kourkouas | 963 – ? | Nikephoros II Phokas | Son of John Kourkouas and related to Nikephoros Phokas, he was possibly promoted to Domestic of the West on the latter's accession. | [70] |
| Melias | c. 972–973 | John I Tzimiskes | A relative of the celebrated early 10th-centurystratēgosof the same name, he held the post of Domestic of the East. He led a campaign intoUpper Mesopotamia in 972–973 and was captured during a siege ofAmid. | [68][71] |
| Bardas Phokas | 978–987 | Basil II | The heir to the Phokas clan's imperial aspirations, he rebelled against Tzimiskes but was defeated byBardas Skleros and imprisoned. He was released and given the Domesticate of the East in 978 to confront the rebellion of Skleros against Basil II. He defeated Skleros, but in 987 he rebelled against Basil himself, only to die in the middle of a battle against the emperor at Abydos in April 989. | [72] |
| Stephen "Kontostephanos" | c. 986 | Basil II | Domestic of the West during the campaign against Bulgaria, and in part responsible for the heavy defeat in theBattle of the Gates of Trajan | [73] |
| Nikephoros Ouranos | 996–999 | Basil II | A confidante of Basil II and capable general, he was appointed "master of all the West" to confront the depredations of TsarSamuel of Bulgaria, whom he decisively defeated at theBattle of Spercheios in 997. In 999 he was sent east asdoux ofAntioch, where he strengthened the Syrian frontier and scored successes against theFatimids. | [73][74] |
| Nicholas | 1025–1028, 1042–1044(?) | Constantine VIII Zoe | One of the eunuch favourites of Constantine VIII, he was namedproedros,parakoimōmenos and Domestic of the Schools, although legally barred from the latter office. Dismissed byRomanos III, he was recalled to imperial favour and the Domesticate of the East by Zoe in 1042. In this capacity he led the defence against theRus' raid of 1043 and campaigned without success in Armenia, whereupon he was relieved of his military command. | [75] |
| Symeon | 1030 – ? | Romanos III Argyros | One of the eunuch favourites of Constantine VIII, he was namedproedros and Drungary of the Watch by the emperor. He played a major role in the rise of Romanos III to the throne through his marriage to Zoe, and received the Domesticate of the East in 1030. | [76] |
| Constantine | 1037–1041 1041–1042 | Michael IV Michael V | A eunuch brother of Michael IV, he was nameddoux of Antiochc. 1034/35 and was raised to Domestic of the East in 1037. His leadership was not very successful, and in 1040 a failed conspiracy was directed against him. After the death of Michael, Constantine was recalled and exiled by Empress Zoe. He was restored by his nephew Michael V and promoted tonōbelissimos, but was blinded and exiled again when the latter was deposed. | [77][78] |
| Constantine Kabasilas | 1042 – ? | Zoe | One of the leaders of the revolt against Michael V, he was named "doux of the West" by Zoe. | [79] |
| Constantine Arianites | c. 1048 – 1050 | Constantine IX | A distinguished general, he is recorded as holding the post of "master [of the troops] of the West" in the campaigns against thePechenegs. He was killed before Adrianople in 1050. | [80] |
| Theodore | 1054–1057 | Theodora | A eunuch and confidante of the empress, he was raised to the Domesticate of the East and the rank ofproedros and sent east to fight the Turks. He marched against the rebellion ofIsaac Komnenos and was defeated at theBattle of Petroe. | [81] |
| John Komnenos | 1057 – ? | Isaac I Komnenos | Younger brother of Isaac I, he was raised tokouropalatēs and "Grand Domestic" by his brother. The usage of "Grand Domestic" is probably an anachronistic usage by later sources, and his real title was probably Domestic of Schools of the West. | [82] |
| Philaretos Brachamios | c. 1068 –c. 1071 1078 – ? | Romanos IV Diogenes Nikephoros III Botaneiates | An Armenian nobleman, he was raised to Domestic of the East by Romanos IV, probably dismissed byMichael VII and reinstated by Nikephoros III. | [82] |
| Andronikos Doukas | c. 1072 | Michael VII Doukas | Eldest son of theCaesarJohn Doukas,prōtoproedros andprōtovestiarios, he was appointed Domestic of the East to confront the deposed emperor Romanos IV. | [83] |
| Isaac Komnenos | c. 1073 | Michael VII Doukas | Son of thekouropalatēs John Komnenos (brother of Isaac I), he was named Domestic and sent against the Turks, but was defeated and captured. | [83] |
| Alexios Komnenos | 1078–1081 | Nikephoros III Botaneiates | Nephew of Isaac I, he was appointed to the Domesticate of the West to combat the revolts ofNikephoros Bryennios andNikephoros Basilakes. In 1081, he deposed Nikephoros III and became emperor, ruling until his death in 1118. | [84][83] |
| Gregory Pakourianos | 1081–1086 | Alexios I Komnenos | Was named "Grand Domestic of the West" after Alexios Komnenos ascended the throne, and was killed in battle in 1086. R. Guilland qualifies him as the "first person to be officially named "Grand Domestic"." | [85][83] |
| Adrianos Komnenos | 1086 – after 1095 | Alexios I Komnenos | A younger brother of Alexios I, he succeeded Pakourianos as "Grand Domestic of the West" in 1086. | [85] |
| Alexios Gidos | c. 1185 c. 1194 | Andronikos I Komnenos Isaac II Angelos | Known to have been "Grand Domestic of the East" in 1185, and Domestic of the West in 1194, when he led the Byzantine army in the disastrousBattle of Arcadiopolis. | [86][87] |
| Basil Vatatzes | after 1185–1194 | Isaac II Angelos | Married to a niece of Isaac II, as Domestic of the East anddoux of theThracesians he suppressed the revolt ofTheodore Mankaphas in 1189. By 1193 he was Domestic of the West at Adrianople. He was killed in the Battle of Arcadiopolis in 1194. | [88][87] |
| Tzamplakon | unknown | John III Vatatzes | Father ofAlexios Tzamplakon and first notable member of his family, he is known to have held the title during the reign of John III (1222–1254). | [87] |
| Theodotos Kalothetos | c. 1254/1258 | John III Vatatzes or Theodore II Laskaris | He is known to have held the title from a letter addressed to him byTheodore II Laskaris (ruled 1254–1258). In 1259, he was governor of the Thracesian Theme. | [87] |
| Ferran d'Aunés | c. 1304 | Andronikos II Palaiologos | A Catalan mercenary, he was raised to the dignity of "Domestic of the Schools" and entered the Byzantine nobility, marrying into theRaoul family | [87] |
| Manuel Doukas Laskaris | c. 1320 | Andronikos II Palaiologos | He is the last known holder of the title, mentioned in 1320 as "Domestic of the Schools of the West" and governor ofThessalonica | [89] |
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