Dnipro[a] isUkraine's fourth-largest city, with about one million inhabitants.[4][5][6][7] It is located in the eastern part of Ukraine, 391 km (243 mi)[8] southeast of the Ukrainian capitalKyiv on theDnipro River, from which it takes its name. Dnipro is theadministrative centre ofDnipropetrovsk Oblast. It hosts the administration of Dnipro urbanhromada.[9] Dnipro has a population of968,502 (2022 estimate).[10]
Archeological evidence suggests the site of the present city was settled byCossack communities from at least 1524.Yekaterinoslav ("glory of Catherine")[11] was established by decree of theRussian EmpressCatherine the Great in 1787 as the administrative center ofNovorossiya. From the end of the 19th century, the town attracted foreign capital and an international, multi-ethnic workforce exploitingKryvbas iron ore andDonbas coal.
RenamedDnipropetrovsk in 1926 after the UkrainianCommunist Party leaderGrigory Petrovsky, it became a focus for theStalinist commitment to the rapid development of heavy industry. AfterWorld War II, this includednuclear,arms, andspace industries whose strategic importance led to Dnipropetrovsk's designation as aclosed city.
Following theEuromaidan events of 2014, the city politically shifted away from pro-Russian parties and figures towards those favoring closer ties with the European Union. As a result ofdecommunization, the city was renamed Dnipro in 2016. Following theRussian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Dnipro rapidly developed as a logistical hub for humanitarian aid and a reception point for people fleeing the various battle fronts.[12][13]
Novorossiysk (Russian:Новороссийск,IPA:[nəvərɐˈsʲijsk], Ukrainian:Ukrainian:Новоросійськ,romanized: Novorosiisk[noʋoroˈs⁽ʲ⁾ijsʲk]) 1796–1802, briefly renamed during the reign of Catherine II's hated son, tsarPaul I; however, the previous name was restored by tsarAlexander I after he had his father assassinated[14][15]
Yekaterinoslav 1802–1918, calledCatharinoslav on some nineteenth-century maps.[16]
The 2015law on decommunization required the city to be renamed.[22] On 29 December 2015 theDnipro City Council officially changed the reference of the city naming from referring to Petrovsky to being in honor ofSaint Peter,[25] thus making the name consistent with the law without actually changing the name itself.
On 3 February 2016 a draft law was registered in theVerkhovna Rada (the Ukrainian parliament) to change the name of the city toDnipro.[26] On 19 May 2016 the Ukrainian parliament passed a bill to officially rename the city (toDnipro). The resolution was approved by 247 out of the 344 MPs, with 16 opposing the measure.[27][nb 1][nb 2]
Following the renaming of the city the reference to Petrovsky has been removed from institutions named after the city. A notable exception is the name of the surrounding province, which is listed in the territorial structure of Ukraine inthe Constitution.[31] Thus until a lengthy and complicated process of amending is carried out, it officially retains the nameDnipropetrovsk Oblast.
Around the fortress a settlement emerged that became a town inKodak Palanka [uk;pl] (province) of the Zaporizhian Sich calledNovyi (New) Kodak [uk].[19] Cossacks often hid the true number of the population to reduce taxation and other obligations, but according to documentary evidence, it can be assumed that the population of New Kodak was at least 3,000 people.[19] The fortress was garrisoned by Cossacks until the Sich, allied with theOttoman Empire and theirTartar vassals, drove out the encroachingTsardom of Russia. Under the terms of the Russian withdrawal—theTreaty of the Pruth in 1711—the Kodak fortress was demolished.[37][39]
In the mid-1730s, the fortress and Russians returned, living in an uneasy cohabitation with local cossacks.[37] From mid-century they co-existed with the Zaporozhiansloboda (or "free settlement") ofPolovytsia located on the site of today's Central Terminal and theOzyorka farmers market.[40][15]
In theRusso-Turkish War (1768–1774), the Zaporozhian cossacks allied withEmpress Catherine II. No sooner had they assisted the Russians to victory than they faced an imperial ultimatum to disband their confederation. Theliquidation of the Sich destroyed their political autonomy and saw the incorporation of their lands into the new governates ofNovorossiya.[41] In 1784, Catherine ordered the foundation of new city, commonly referred to at the time as Katerynoslav.[19]
The first written mention of a town in theRussian Empire called Yekaterinoslav can be found in a report fromAzov GovernorVasily Chertkov toGrigory Potemkin on 23 April 1776. He wrote "The provincial city called Yekaterinoslav should be the best convenience on the right side of theDnieper River near Kaydak..." (referring to Novyi Kodak). In 1777, a town named Yekaterinoslav (the glory of Catherine),[11] was built to the north of the present-day city at the confluence of theSamara and Kilchen rivers. The site was badly chosen – spring waters transformed the city into a bog.[40][15] The surviving settlement was later renamedNovomoskovsk.[19][42]
On 20 May [O.S. 9 May] 1787, in the course of her celebratedCrimean journey, the Empress laid the foundation stone of theTransfiguration Cathedral in the presence of AustrianEmperor Joseph II,Polish kingStanisław August Poniatowski, and the French and English ambassadors.[43][44] Potemkin's grandiose plans for a third Russian imperial capital alongside Moscow and Saint Petersburg included a viceregal palace, a university (Potemkin envisioned Yekaterinoslav as the 'Athens of southern Russia'[45]), courts of law and a botanical garden,[46] were frustrated by a renewal of theRusso-Turkish war in 1787, by bureaucratic procrastination, defective workmanship, and theft, Potemkin's death in 1791 and that of his imperial patroness five years later.[45]
In 1815 a government official described the town as "more like someDutch [Mennonite] colony then a provincial administrative centre".[47] The cathedral, much reduced in size, was completed in 1835.[15]
Disputed year of foundation
Scholarship concerning the foundation of the city has been subject to political considerations and dispute.[37][48] In 1976, to have the bicentenary of the city coincide with the 70th anniversary of the birth of Soviet party leader, and regional native son,Leonid Brezhnev, the date of the city's foundation was moved back from the visit Russian Empress Catherine II in 1787, to 1776.[37]
Following Ukrainian independence, local historians began to promote the idea of a town emerging in the 17th century from Cossack settlements, an approach aimed at promoting the city's Ukrainian identity.[48][49] They cited the chronicler of theZaporozhian Cossacks,Dmytro Yavornytsky, whoseHistory of the City of Ekaterinoslav completed in 1940 was authorised for publication only in 1989, the era ofGlasnost.[50][49]
Growth as an industrial centre
A map of Ekaterinoslav, 1885[nb 3]The Main Post Office, 1870Catherine the Great monument in Ekaterinoslav (1840–1920[citation needed]). This monument that stood in front of the Mining Institute was replaced by Soviet authorities with one of Russian academicMikhail Lomonosov.[51]
While into the late nineteenth century the principal business of the town remained the processing of agricultural raw materials,[15] there was an early state-sponsored effort to promote manufacture. In 1794 the government supported two factories: a textile factory that was transferred from the town of DubrovnyMogilev Governorate and a silk-stockings factory that was brought from the village of Kupavna near Moscow. In 1797 the textile factory employed 819 permanent workers, 378 of whom were women and 115 children. The silk stocking workers, the majority being women, were serfs bought at an auction for 16,000 roubles. Conditions, as Potemkin himself was forced to admit, were harsh, with many of the workers dying from malnutrition and exhaustion.[15]
From 1797 to 1802, while serving under the EmperorPaul I as the administrative centre of a centre of theNovorossiya Governorate, the settlement was officially known asNovorossiysk.[14][15]
Despite the bridging of the Dnieper in 1796, commerce was slow to develop. 1832 saw the establishment of the small Zaslavsky iron-casting factory, the town's first metallurgical enterprise.[15] Industrialisation gathered apace in the 1880s with the establishment of the first railway connections.[52] Rail construction responded to the enterprise of two men:John Hughes, aWelsh businessman who built an iron works atYuzovka in 1869–72, and developed the Donbas coal deposits;[40] and the Russian geologistAlexander Pol, who in 1866 had discovered theKrivoy Rog iron ore basin,Krivbass, during archaeological research.[40]
In 1884, a railway to supplypig iron foundries in Krivoy Rog with Donbass coal crossed the Dnieper at Yekaterinoslav.[14] It proved a spur to further industrial development[14] and to the creation of the new suburbs ofAmur and Nyzhniodniprovsk.
From 1792 Yekaterinoslav was within thePale of Settlement, the former Polish-Lithuanian territories in which Catherine and her successors enforced no limitation on the movement and residency of their Jewish subjects.[56] Within less than a century, a largelyYiddish-speaking Jewish community of 40,000 constituted more than a third of the city's population, and contributed a considerable share of its business capital and industrial workforce.[57]
Such apparent strength did not protect the community—members of whom had had the unpopular task of collecting government taxes and recruiting young men for the army[58]— from communal violence.[59] In 1883, three days of rioting destroyed Jewish business, and persuaded many to temporarily leave the city. There was a return of anti–Semitic incitement among the Christian public in 1904, but attacks on community were, at that time, suppressed on the order of a liberal governor.[58]
In the widespread social unrest that followed the 1905 defeat in theRusso-Japanese War, the political life of the city was dominated by the revolutionary opposition (including the Jewish Workers Socialist Party and theBund)[58] and by the insurrectionary spirit of the nascent labor movement. The localczarist authorities were able to ride out the wave political protests and strikes, in part by playing on division between Jewish workers who predominated as clerks and artisans in the city, and Russian workers employed in the large suburban factories.[60] There was a wave of anti-Semitic attacks. With the army intervening against Jewish defense groups, about 100 Jews were killed and two hundred wounded.[58]
According to local historianAndrii Portnov, 40% of the local Yekaterinoslav population was Jewish in the years leading up toWorld War I.[61]
Directly following the RussianFebruary Revolution, in the night of 3 MarchO.S (16 MarchN.S) to 4 March 1917 a provisional government was organised in Yekaterinoslav headed by the (since 1913) chairman of the provincial land administrationKonstantin von Hesberg [uk].[62] Also on 4 March a Council of Workers' Deputies was formed.[62] On 6 March theprime minister of theRussian Provisional GovernmentGeorgy Lvov removed the governor and the vice-governor ofYekaterinoslav Governorate, temporarily handing these powers to Hesberg.[62] On 9 March a Yekaterinoslav Council of Workers and Soldiers deputies was formed.[62]
On 16 May the Council of Workers' Deputies and the Council of Workers and Soldiers merged, to become named the Revolutionary Council in November 1917.[62] All these power structures existed in duality, with Hesberg's provisional government often being at a disadvantage.[62] In 1917 the city saw numerous meetings, rallies, meetings, conferences, congresses and demonstrations by political parties all over the political spectrum.[62] Due to intense political agitation the newly formed factory committees and professional unions by autumn of 1917 mainly supported theBolsheviks, significantly strengthening their positions.[62]
In June 1917 a Central Council (Tsentralna Rada) of Ukrainian parties inKyiv declared Yekaterinoslav to be within the territory of the autonomousUkrainian People's Republic (UPR).[14] On 13 August 1917 the first democratic Yekaterinoslav 120 seatscity Duma election took place.[62] The Bolsheviks gained 24 seats and theMensheviks 16, with pro-Ukrainian parties picking up 6 seats.[62]Vasyl Osipov [uk] was elected Mayor of the city.[62] Osipov was Mayor until the dissolution of the city Duma in May 1918.[62] On 10 November 1917 a parade of Ukrainian troops was held, organized by the Yekaterinoslav Ukrainian Military Council in support of theThird Universal of the Ukrainian Central Council, the proclamation of the Ukrainian People's Republic.[14]
In the November 1917 elections to theRussian Constituent Assembly, the Bolsheviks secured just under 18 per cent of thevote in the Governorate, compared to 46 per cent for theUkrainian Socialist Revolutionaries and their allies.[63] On 22 November 1917 the Revolutionary Council and the city Duma pledged their allegiance to the Tsentralna Rada.[62] The Bolsheviks then left these organisations.[62] During December, the situation in the city worsened with both sides preparing for military action.[62]
On 26 December, the Bolsheviks defied an ultimatum from the Tsentralna Rada and after three days of fighting consolidated their control of the city.[62] On 12 February they declared Yekaterinoslav part of aDonetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic, but the following month, under the terms of theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk, conceded the territory to theGerman andAustrian-allied UPR.[64][14] On 5 April 1918 theImperial German army entered the city. Five hundred remaining BolshevikRed Guards were publicly executed.[62]
A German military parade in Yekaterinoslav in spring 1918.
The formal tenure of the UPR was brief: on 29 April 1918 intervention by theCentral Powers saw the UPR replaced by the more pliantUkrainian State orHetmanate. On 18 May 1918 theHetman of the Ukrainian State,Pavlo Skoropadskyi, ordered the previously nationalized enterprises returned to their former owners, and with the assistance of Austro-Hungarian troops the new authorities suppressed labor protest.[62]
On 23 December 1918, following their defeat by the Western Allies and after four days of insurgency within the city, German and Austro-Hungarian occupation forces withdrew. Four days later, Yekaterinoslav was stormed by theanarchist Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine (theMakhnovshchina), putting to flight forces loyal to the UPR's newDirectorate. Over the course of the following year, city was to change hands several more times, contested between the UPR, the Whites (Armed Forces of South Russia),Nykyfor Hryhoriv's peasant insurgents,Makhnovshchina (who returned twice),[65] and the Bolsheviks, who reorganised as the Red Army, finally secured the city on 30 December 1919.[62][66][67]
The city had been extensively damaged and the population, which had stood at about 268,000 people in 1917, had dropped to under 190,000.[68]
Stalin-era industrialisation
The boy on the left murdered an 8-year-old for his 4 pounds of bread in Yekaterinoslav in 1922, during thelocal 1921–1923 famine.[69]
In late May 1920 the food supply to Yekaterinoslav deteriorated, resulting in a wave of strikes.[68] In June 1920 Soviet authorities quelled one such protest by arresting 200 railway workers, of which 51 were sentenced to immediate execution.[68]
In 1922 the region was incorporated into theUkrainian SSR, a constituent republic of theSoviet Union. In 1922 theSoviet government ordered that "all nationalized enterprises with names related to the Company or the Surname of the old owners must be renamed in memory ofrevolutionary events, in memory ofthe international,all-Russian or local leaders of theproletarian revolution."[70] In 1922 and 1923 the factories were renamed, as well as dozens of streets, alleys, driveways, squares and parks.[70] In 1923 the city council adopted a resolution to organize a competition to rename the city itself.[70]
Petrovsky was present at this congress and he did "accept this honour with great gratitude."[70] The resolution of the congress was approved by a resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet dated 20 July 1926.[70] In the1920s and1930s dozens of streets, alleys, driveways, squares and parkscontinued to be renamed in the city, this continued in the1940s and in subsequent years.[70]
By 1927 the industry of Dnipropetrovsk was completely rebuilt, and according to some indicators exceeded pre-war levels.[68] Due to agrarian overpopulation, an influx of unemployed from other settlements, a higher birth rates among other reasons, both employment and unemployment in Dnipropetrovsk rose.[68] In the late twenties, the authorities had to contend with growing labour unrest. "Do not strangle us, our children are dying of hunger, we have been placed in worse conditions than under the old regime" read one protest.[72]
The city figured prominently inStalin'sFive-Year Plans for industrialisation. In 1932, Dnipropetrovsk's regional metallurgical plants produced 20 per cent of the entire cast iron and 25 per cent of the steel manufactured in the Ukrainian SSR. By the end of the thirties the Dnipropetrovsk region became the most urbanised of Soviet Ukraine with more than 2,273,000 people living in the region and over half a million in the city proper. Dnipropetrovsk became an important cultural and educational centre with ten colleges and a State University.[73]
The surrounding countryside was devastated by the policy offorced collectivisation and grain seizures. Peasants had died en masse during theHolodomor of 1932–33.[74]Dnipropetrovsk Oblast in the years 1932–33 lost 3.5 to 9.8 million people,[75] making it one of the most affected areas of the famine.[75]
Drawn by employment in the expanding heavy industry, the survivors changed the ethnic composition of the city. The percentage of residents recorded as Ukrainian rose from 36 per cent of the population in 1926 to 54.6 per cent in 1939. The Russian percentage fell from 31.6 to 23.4, and the Jewish share fell from 26.8 to 17.9.[76][77] The city's population during theInterwar period grew rapidly. 368,000 people lived in Dnipropetrovsk in 1932. In the1939 Soviet Census, this number had grown to more than half a million (500,662 people).[68]
SovietUkrainization andKorenizatsiya were implemented in Dnipropetrovsk.[68] TheCommunist party of Ukraine organized special courses in Ukrainian studies.[68] Soviet authorities greatly increased the number of schools, and by the mid-1930s had eradicate illiteracy in the city.[68] New universities were opened.[78] At the end of the 1930s Dnipropetrovsk had 10 higher and 19 special educational institutions.[78] In the 1930s a significant number of new secondary schools and hospitals were built in the city, and city parks were improved.[78]
TheGreat Purge, following theAssassination of Sergei Kirov, also reached Dnipropetrovsk.[68] In 1935 the DnipropetrovskNKVD arrested 182 "Trotskyists".[68] In 1935, 235 alleged "internal enemies" were executed, including a few university rectors.[68] In 1936, 526 people were executed.[68] In 1937, the regional administration of the NKVD killed 16,421 people.[68]
Nazi occupation
Monument to 20,000Jews shot by Germans in 1943 in Dnipropetrovsk. Themonumental inscription (in Russian) does not explicitly identify the victims as Jewish, but speaks of "20,000 civilians."[79]
Germany operated threeprisoner-of-war camps in the city, chiefly Stalag 348 with several subcamps in the region from October 1941 to February 1943, after its relocation fromRzeszów in German-occupied Poland,[85] at which the occupiers are estimated to have killed upwards of 30,000 Soviet POWs,[86] and briefly also the Stalag 310 and Stalag 387 camps.[87]
In November 1941 Dnipropetrovsk's population was 233,000. In March 1942 this number had fallen to 178,000.[78] On 25 October 1943 the population on the right-bank of the city numbered no more than 5,000.[78] According to official statistics, in 1945 the population of Dnipropetrovsk had increased to 259,000 people.[78]
As early as July 1944, the State Committee of Defence in Moscow decided to build a large military machine-building factory in Dnipropetrovsk on the location of the pre-war aircraft plant. In December 1945, thousands of Germanprisoners of war began construction and built the first sections and shops in the new factory. This was the foundation of the Dnipropetrovsk Automobile Factory. In 1954 the administration of this automobile factory opened a secret design office, designatedOKB-586, to construct militarymissiles and rocket engines.[88]
The high-security project was joined by hundreds of physicists, engineers and machine designers from Moscow and other large Soviet cities. In 1965, the secret Plant No. 586 was transferred to the USSRMinistry of General Machine-Building which renamed it "the Southern Machine-building Factory" (Yuzhnyi mashino-stroitel'nyi zavod) or in abbreviated Russian, simplyYuzhmash. Yuzhmash became a significant factor in the arms race of the Cold War (Nikita Khrushchev boasted in 1960 that it was producing rockets "like sausages" ).[88]
In 1959, Dnipropetrovsk was officially closed to foreign visitors.[89] No foreign citizen, even of a socialist state, was allowed to visit the city or district. Its citizens were held by Communist authorities to a higher standard of ideological purity than the rest of the population, and their freedom of movement was severely restricted. It was not until 1987, duringperestroika, that Dnipropetrovsk was opened to international visitors and civil restrictions were lifted.[90]
The population of Dnipropetrovsk increased from 259,000 people in 1945 to 845,200 in 1965.[78]
Notwithstanding the high-security regime, in September and October 1972, workers downed tools in several factories in Dnipropetrovsk demanding higher wages, better food and living conditions, and the right to choose one's job.[91] Labour militancy returned in the late 1980s, a period in which promises ofPerestrioka andGlasnost raised popular expectations.[92] In 1990 two thousand inmates rioted in the women's remand prison in a further of sign of growing unrest.[93]
In 1959 17.4% of Dnipropetrovsk students were taught in Ukrainian language schools and 82.6% in Russian language schools. 58% of the city's inhabitants self-identified as Ukrainians.[94] Compared with the other 3 biggestcities of Ukraine Dnipropetrovsk had a rather large share of education conducted in Ukrainian. InKyiv 26.8% of pupils studied in Ukrainian and 73.1% in Russian while 66% of Kyiv residents considered themselves Ukrainian, inKharkiv these numbers were 4.9%, 95.1% and 49%. InOdesa these numbers were 8.1%, 91.9% and 40%.[94][nb 4]
As in the overallUkrainian SSR, Dnipropetrovsk saw an influx of young immigrants from rural Ukraine.[96]Dnipropetrovsk Oblast saw the highest inflow of rural youth of all Ukraine.[96]
The growing evidence of dissent in the city coincided from the late 1960s with what the KGB referred to as "radio hooliganism". Thousands of high-school and college students had becomeham radio enthusiasts, recording and rebroadcastingwestern popular music. Annual KGB reports regularly drew a connection between enthusiasm for western pop culture and anti-Soviet behaviour.[99] In the 1980s, by which time the KGB had conceded that their raids against "hippies" had failed suppress the youth rebellion,[100][nb 5] such behaviour was reportedly found in an admixture of Anglo-American"heavy metal,punk rock andBanderism—the veneration ofStepan Bandera, and of other Ukrainian nationalists, who in the Soviet narrative were denounced and discredited asNazi collaborators.[102]
In an attempt to provide Dnipropetrovsk youth with an ideologically safe alternative, beginning in 1976 the localKomsomol set up approveddiscotheques. Some of the activists involved in this "disco movement" went on in the 1980s to engage in their own illicit tourist and music enterprises, and several later became influential figures in Ukrainian national politics, among themYulia Tymoshenko,Victor Pinchuk,Serhiy Tihipko,Ihor Kolomoyskyi andOleksandr Turchynov.[101]
The "Dnipropetrovsk Mafia"
Reflecting Dnipropetrovsk's special strategic importance for the entire Soviet Union, partycadres from the "rocket city" played an outsized role not only in republican leadership in Kyiv, but also in the Union leadership in Moscow.[103] During Stalin'sGreat Purge,Leonid Brezhnev rose rapidly within the ranks of the localnomenklatura,[104] from director of theDnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Institute in 1936 to regional (Obkom) Party Secretary in charge of the city's defence industries in 1939.[105]
In anational referendum on 1 December 1991, 90.36% of Dnipropetrovsk's voters approved thedeclaration of independence that had been made by theUkrainian parliament on 24 August.[106] Amidst the economic dislocation and soaring inflation that accompanied thecollapse of the Soviet Union, output declined.[107] Although its economic contraction was at a rate below the national average,[108] the Dnipropetrovsk city and oblast witnessed one of thelargest population declines of all theregions of Ukraine.[109] By 2021, the city's population, which had stood at over 1.2 million in 1991, had been reduced to 981,000.[110] Young people from Dnipropetrovsk were among the millions of Ukrainians who left the country to find work and opportunity abroad.[111]
The continuation into the new century of the chaotic fallout from thecollapse of the Soviet Union was symbolized for many in Dnipropetrovsk by two violent episodes. In June and July 2007, Dnipropetrovsk experienced a wave of random video-recordedserial killings that were dubbed by the media as the work of the "Dnipropetrovsk maniacs".[112] In February 2009, three youths were sentenced for their part in 21 murders, and numerous other attacks and robberies.[113] On 27 April 2012, four bombsexploded near four tram stations in Dnipropetrovsk, injuring 27 people.[114] No one was convicted. Opposition politicians claimed to see the hand of PresidentViktor Yanukovych intent on disrupting the October2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election and installing a presidential regime.[115][116]
On 26 January 2014, 3,000 anti-Viktor Yanukovych (Ukrainian President) and pro-Euromaidan activists attempted but failed to capture theRegional State Administration building.[117][118][119][120][121] There were street disturbances[122] and Euromaidan protesters were reported to be beaten up by paid pro-Yanukovych supporters (the so-calledTitushky).[123][124] Dnipropetrovsk Governor Kolesnikov called them "extreme radical thugs from other regions".[125]
Two days later about 2,000 public sector employees called an indefinite rally in support of the Yanukovych government.[126] Meanwhile, the government building was reinforced with barbed wire.[126][127][128] On 19 February 2014 there was an anti-Yanukovych picket near the Regional State Administration.[129] On 22 February 2014, after a further anti-Yanukovych demonstration, Dnipropetrovsk MayorIvan Kulichenko, for the sake of "peace in the city" left Yanukovych'sParty of Regions.[130]
Simultaneously theDnipropetrovsk City Council vowed to support "the preservation of Ukraine as a single and indivisible state", although some members had called forseparatism and forfederalization of Ukraine.[130] On the same day, afterstreet fighting inKyiv, 22 February 2014, Yanukovych left Ukraine and went into Russian exile.[131]
To comply with the2015 decommunization law the city was renamedDnipro in May 2016, after the river that flows through the city.[27][22] By summer 2016 not only was the city renamed, but so were more than 350 streets, alleys, driveways, squares and parks.[138] For example,Karl Marx Avenue, the main street, was renamedYavornytskyi Avenue in honour of the once neglected city and cossack historian.[139] This was 12 per cent of all of the city'stoponymies.[138] Five ofthe eighturban districts of the city received new names.[138]
In the wake of theRussian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, and with developing military fronts nearKyiv and to thenorth,east andsouth, Dnipro has become a logistical hub for humanitarian aid and a reception point for people fleeing the war. Roughly equidistant from the war's major theatres in theeast and thesouth, the city's location is proving critical for supplying the Ukrainian defence effort.[citation needed] At the same time, its control of aDnieper River crossing and the opportunity it would provide to cut off Ukrainian forces in theDonbas makes the city a high-value target for the Russians.[12][140]
Dnipro is reported as the only city in Ukraine where a volunteer formation has been created under direct control of theDnipro City Council. It is called the "Dnieper Guard" (Варти Дніпра, Varty Dnipra). The mayor of Dnipro,Borys Filatov has dismissed suggestions that the group remainedIhor Kolomoyskyi's "private army". Kolomoyskyi has helped with some equipment purchases, but the force performs defence and law and order functions under the leadership of thenational police.[141]
Dnipro city after Russian shelling in the night on 29 September 2022.
The Russians first hit Dnipro on 11 March. Three air strikes close to a kindergarten and an apartment building killed at least one person.[142] On 15 March, Russian missiles hitDnipro International Airport, destroying the runway and damaging the terminal.[143] In the early hours of 6 April, an air strike destroyed an oil depot.[144] On 10 April, a Ukrainian government spokesperson said that the airport in Dnipro had been "completely destroyed" as the result of a Russian attack.[145] On 15 July, a Russian missile attack killed four people and injured sixteen others in Dnipro.[146]
As part of thederussification campaign that swept through Ukraine following the February 2022 invasion 110 toponyms in the city were "de-Russified" from February to September 2022.[147] The renaming started on 21 April when 31 streets connected to Russia were renamed. In May another 20 streets were renamed, followed by 21 more streets and alleys in June 2022.[148] According to Dnipro's MayorBorys Filatov (speaking on 21 September 2022) "this is not the end."[147] Among other renamings, the Schmidt Street (the street was originally the Gymnasium Street but it was renamed toOtto Schmidt Street by Soviet authorities in 1934[70]) in the center of Dnipro was renamed toStepan Bandera Street.[147][nb 6] In May 2022 (also) several outdoor objects related to theUSSR were dismantled in Dnipro.[150][151] In December 2022 Dnipro removed from the city all monuments to figures ofRussian culture andhistory.[152][nb 7] On 22 February 2023 26 more streets were renamed.[153]
The City Council Assembly makes up the administration's legislative branch, thus effectively making it a city 'parliament' or rada. The municipal council is made up of 12 elected members, who are each elected to represent a certain district of the city for a four-year term. The council has 29 standing commissions which play an important role in the oversight of the city and its merchants.
Until 18 July 2020, Dnipro was incorporated as acity of oblast significance, the centre of Dnipro Municipality and extraterritorial administrative centre ofDnipro Raion. The municipality was abolished in July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to seven. The area of Dnipro Municipality was merged into Dnipro Raion.[160][161]
Area mapDnipro City HallThe Dnipropetrovsk Regional Administration buildingTheDnipro central post officeVokzalna squareModern buildings on the right bankThe Prydniprovsk Power PlantStaryi Bridge
Five of the eight urban districts were renamed late November 2015 to comply withdecommunization laws.[162]
Politics
In the first decades ofUkrainian independence the city's voters generally favoured the proponents of continued close ties to Russia: in the 1990s theCommunist Party of Ukraine, and in the new century, theParty of Regions.[163][164] After the 2014 events ofEuromaidan, which included demonstrations and clashes in the central city, the Party of Regions ceded influence to those parties and independents calling forcloser ties to the European Union.
As in Soviet Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk was disproportionately represented among political leaders in Kyiv.[89] The principal representatives of the so-called "Dnipropetrovsk Faction" in the capital were Ukraine's second presidentLeonid Kuchma and Ukraine's 10th and 13th prime ministerYulia Tymoshenko.[165] Kuchma was a former senior manager ofYuzhmash[165] while Tymoshenko was president ofUnited Energy Systems of Ukraine, a Dnipropetrovsk-based private company that from 1995 to 1997 was the main importer of Russian natural gas to Ukraine.[166]
Kuchma's1994 presidential campaign had been financed by Dnipropetrovsk businessmenIhor Kolomoyskyi andGennadiy Bogolyubov. Kolomoyskyi and Bogolyubov were partners inPrivat Group, a scandal-ridden financial-industrial conglomerate.[167] As prime Minister, Kuchma had granted theirPrivatBank the unique privilege of opening overseas branches. These were later implicated in the wholesale defrauding of Ukrainian depositors, leading to thebank's nationalization in 2016.[168][169] Kuchma was also closely tied to another budding Dnipropetrovsk billionaire, his son-in-lawViktor Pinchuk whose assets included several giant steel and pipe plants in the region and the bankKredit-Dnepr.[165]
In the October2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election Yanukovych'sParty of Regions, which promoted itself as the champion of the language rights and industrial interests of largely Russian-speaking eastern Ukraine, won 35.8 per cent of the vote in the Dnipropetrovsk region, compared to 18.4 per cent for Tymoshenko'sFatherland Party and 19.4 per cent for theCommunists.[174] Tymoshenko mounted a hunger strike to once again protest election irregularities.[175]
On 25 March 2015, following a struggle with Kolomoyskyi for control the state-owned oil pipeline operator,[189] President Poroshenko replaced Kolomoyskyi as governor withValentyn Reznichenko.[190][191][192]
An aerial view of Dnipro. TheDnieper River, city's left and right banks, and a number of bridges can be seen.
The city is built mainly upon both banks of the Dnieper, at its confluence with theSamara River. In the loop of a major meander, the Dnieper changes its course from the north west to continue southerly and later south-westerly through Ukraine, ultimately passingKherson, where it finally flows into theBlack Sea.[citation needed]
Nowadays both the north and south banks play home to a range of industrial enterprises and manufacturing plants. The airport is located about 15 km (9.3 mi) south-east of the city.
The centre of the city is constructed on the right bank which is part of theDnieper Upland, while the left bank is part of theDnieper Lowland. The old town is situated atop a hill that is formed as a result of the river's change of course to the south. The change of river's direction is caused by its proximity to theAzov Upland located southeast of the city.[citation needed]
One of the city's streets, Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt, links the two major architectural ensembles of the city and constitutes an important thoroughfare through the centre, which along with various suburban radial road systems, provides some of the area's most vital transport links for both suburban and inter-urban travel.
Climate
Under theKöppen–Geiger climate classification system, Dnipro has ahumid continental climate (Dfa/Dfb).[204] Snowfall is more common in the hills than at the city's lower elevations. The city has four distinct seasons: a cold, snowy winter; a hot summer; and two relatively wet transition periods. However, according to other schemes (such as the Salvador Rivas-Martínez bioclimatic one), Dnipro has a Supratemperate bioclimate, and belongs to the Temperate xeric steppic thermoclimatic belt, due to highevapotranspiration.[205]
During the summer, Dnipro is very warm (average day temperature in July is 24 to 28 °C (75 to 82 °F), even hot sometimes 32 to 36 °C (90 to 97 °F)). Temperatures as high as 36 °C (97 °F) have been recorded in May. Winter is not so cold (average day temperature in January is −4 to 0 °C (25 to 32 °F), but when there is no snow and the wind blows hard, it feels extremely cold. A mix of snow and rain happens usually in December.
The best time for visiting the city is in late spring (late April and May), and early in autumn: September, October, when the city's trees turn yellow. Other times are mainly dry with a few showers.[206]
"However, the city is characterized with significant pollution of air with industrial emissions."[207] The "severely polluted air and water" and allegedly "vast areas of decimated landscape" of Dnipro andDonetsk are considered by some to be an environmental crisis.[208] Though exactly where in Dnipropetrovsk these areas might be found is not stated.[208]
Climate data for Dnipro (1991–2020, extremes 1948–present)
Dnipro is a primarily industrial city of around one million people. It has developed into a large urban centre over the past few centuries to become, today, Ukraine's fourth-largest city afterKyiv,Kharkiv andOdesa.Stalinist architecture (monumental soviet classicism) dominates in the city centre.[212]
Immediately after its foundation Yekaterinoslav, began to develop exclusively on the right bank of theDnieper River. At first the city developed radially from the central point provided by theTransfiguration Cathedral, completed in 1835.[15]Neoclassical structures of brick and stone construction were preferred and the city began to take on the appearance of a typical European city of the era. Many of these buildings have been retained in the city's olderSobornyi District.[213] Among the most important buildings of this era are the Transfiguration Cathedral, and a number of buildings in the area surrounding Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt, including theKhrennikov House.
Over the next few decades, until the final end of theRussian Empire with theOctober Revolution in 1917, the city did not change much in appearance. The predominant architectural style remainedneo-classicism. Notable buildings built in the era before 1917 include the main building of theDnipro Polytechnic, which was built in 1899–1901,[214] the art-nouveau inspired building of the city's formerDuma (parliament),[215] the Dnipropetrovsk National Historical Museum, and theMechnikov Regional Hospital. Other buildings of the era that did not fit the typical architectural style of the time in Dnipropetrovsk include,[216] the Ukrainian-influenced Grand Hotel Ukraine, the Russian revivalist style railway station (since reconstructed),[217] and theart-nouveau Astoriya building on Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt.
Once Yekaterinoslav became part of theSoviet Union (officially in 1922), and became Dnipropetrovsk in 1926,[23] the city was gradually purged of tsarist-era monuments. Monumental architecture was stripped of Imperial coats of arms and other non-socialist symbolism. Following the 1917 October Revolution, a monument toCatherine the Great that stood in front of the Mining Institute was replaced with one of Russian academicMikhail Lomonosov.[51]
Later, due to damage fromWorld War II, badly damaged buildings were, more often than not, demolished completely and replaced with new structures.[218] In the early 1950s, during the ongoing industrialisation of the city, much of Dnipropetrovsk's centre was rebuilt in the Stalinist style ofSocialist Realism.[219] This is one of the main reasons why much of Dnipro's central avenue,Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt (formerlyKarl Marx Prospect), is designed in the style of Stalinist Social Realism.[220] A number of large buildings were reconstructed. The main railway station, for example, was stripped of itsRussian-revival ornamentation and redesigned in the style of Stalinist social-realism.[221]
TheGrand Hotel Ukraine survived the war but was later simplified much in design, with its roof being reconstructed in a typical Frenchmansard style as opposed to the ornamentalUkrainian Baroque of the pre-war era. Many pre-revolution buildings were reconstructed to suit new purposes. For example, theEmperor Nicholas II Commercial Institute in the city was reconstructed to serve as the administrative centre for theDnipropetrovsk Oblast, a function it fulfils to this day. Other buildings, such as the Potemkin Palace were given over to "theproletariat" (theworking man), in this case as the students' union of theOles Honchar Dnipro National University.
As a result of all this industrialisation the city's inner suburbs became increasingly polluted and were gradually given over to large, industrial enterprises. At the same time the extensive development of the city's left bank and western suburbs as new residential areas began.[222] The low-rise tenant houses of the Khrushchev era (Khrushchyovkas) gave way to the construction of high-rise prefabricated apartment blocks (similar to GermanPlattenbaus). In 1976, in line with the city's 1926 renaming, a large monumental statue ofGrigoriy Petrovsky was placed on the square in front of thecity's railway station.[224][225]
Since theindependence of Ukraine in 1991 and the economic development that followed, a number of large commercial and business centres have been built in the city's outskirts. To this day the city is characterised by its mix of architectural styles, with much of the city's centre consisting of pre-revolutionary buildings in a variety of styles, stalinist buildings and constructivist architecture, while residential districts are, more often than not, made up of aesthetically simple, technically outdated mid-rise and high-rise housing stock from the Soviet era. Despite this, the city has a large number of 'private sectors' where the tradition of building and maintaining individual detached housing has continued to this day.[citation needed]
The population of the city is about 1 million people. In 2011, the average age of the city's resident population was 40 years. The number of males declined slightly more than the number of females. The natural population growth in Dnipro is slightly higher than growth in Ukraine in general.
In a survey in June–July 2017, 9% of residents said that they spoke Ukrainian at home, 63% spoke Russian, and 25% spoke Ukrainian and Russian equally.[247]
The same survey reported the following results for the religion of adult residents.[247]
28% believe in God, but do not belong to any religion
5% found it difficult to answer
According to a survey conducted by theInternational Republican Institute in April–May 2023, 27% of the city's population spoke Ukrainian at home, and 66% spoke Russian.[248]
Metals and metallurgy is the city's core industry in terms of output. Employment in the city is concentrated in large-sized enterprises. Metallurgical enterprises are based in the city and account for over 47% of its industrial output. These enterprises are important contributors to the city's budget and, with 80% of their output being exported, to Ukraine's foreign exchange reserve. Dnipro serves as the main import hub for foreign goods coming into the oblast and, on average, accounted for 58% of the oblast's imports between 2005 and 2011. With economic conditions improving even further in 2010 and 2011, registered unemployment fell to about 4,100 by the end of 2011.
The city of Dnipro's economy is dominated by the wholesale and retail trade sector, which accounted for 53% of the output of non-financial enterprises in 2010.
EntrepreneurIhor Kolomoyskyi'sPrivat Group, a global business group, is based in the city and grouped around thePrivatbank. Privat Group controls thousands of companies of virtually every industry in Ukraine, European Union, Georgia,Ghana, Russia,Romania, United States and other countries. Steel, oil & gas, chemical and energy are sectors of the group's prime influence and expertise. Privat Group is in business conflict with theInterpipe, also based in Dnipro area. The influential metallurgical mill company founded and mostly owned by the local business oligarchViktor Pinchuk.
Another company headquartered in Dnipro isATB-Market. This company owns the largest national network of retail shops.
None of the group's capital is publicly traded on the stock exchange. Group's founding owners are natives of Dnipro and made their entire career here.Privatbank, the core of the group, is the largest commercial bank in Ukraine. In March 2014 was named by the American review magazineGlobal Finance as "the Best Bank in Ukraine for 2014" while British magazineThe Banker in November 2013 named again the same bank as "the Bank of the year 2013 in Ukraine".
In 2018 a private Texas-basedaerospace firmFirefly Aerospace opened a Research and Development (R&D) centre in Dnipro to develop small and medium-sizedlaunch vehicles for commercial launches to orbit.[251]
AkademikYavornitskyi Prospekt, Dnipro's central avenue, features a green pedestrian boulevard and a tram line
The main forms of public transport used in Dnipro are trams, buses and electrictrolley buses. In addition to this there are a large number of taxi firms operating in the city, and many residents have private cars.
The city's municipal roads also suffer from the same funding problems as the trams, with many of them in a very poor technical state.[citation needed] It is not uncommon to find very large potholes and crumbling surfaces on many of Dnipro's smaller roads. Major roads and highways are of better quality. In the early2010s the situation was improving, with a number of new used trams bought from the German cities ofDresden andMagdeburg,[254] and a number of roads, includingSchmidt Street (nowStepan Bandera Street[147]) and Moskovsky Street (nowVolodymyr Monomakh Street[255]) were being reconstructed with modern road-building techniques.[256]
Dnipro also has ametro system, opened in 1995, which consists of one line and 6 stations.[257] The 1980 official plans for four different lines were never made reality.[258] In 2011 the metro was transferred to municipal ownership in the hope that this will help it secure a loan from theEuropean Bank for Reconstruction and Development.[259] In 2011, plans envisioned an expansion of three station,Teatralna,Tsentralna andMuzeina, to be completed by 2015.[260] The opening of these three stations have been repeatedly delayed,[261] and after the February2022 full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine all work on the expansion stopped.[262][263] The extension will increase the number of stations to nine, which would extend the line 4 km to a total of 11.8 km (7.3-mile).[261]
Suburban transportation
Bridges linking the city's right and left banks are heavily used
Dnipro has some highways crossing through the city. The most popular routes are fromKyiv,Donetsk,Kharkiv andZaporizhzhia. Transit through the city is also available. As of 2011[update] the city is also seeing construction of a southern urban bypass, which will allow automobile traffic to proceed around the city centre. This is expected to both improve air quality and reduce transport issues from heavy freight lorries that pass through the city centre.[citation needed]
The largest bus station ineastern Ukraine is located in Dnipro, from where bus routes are available to all over the country, including some international routes toPoland, Germany,Moldova andTurkey. It is located near the city's central railway station. Since the start of the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Ukraine's border crossings with Russia andBelarus are closed to regular traffic.[264]
In the summertime, there are some routes available byhydrofoils on theDnieper River, while various tourist ships on their way down the river, (Kyiv–Kherson–Odesa) tend to make a stop in the city. Dnipro's river port is located close to the area surrounding the central railway station, on the banks of the river.
Rail
Dnipro's main station is one of eastern Ukraine's largest
The city is a large railway junction, with many daily trains running to and from Eastern Europe and on domestic routes within Ukraine.
There are two railway terminals,Dnipro Holovnyi (main station) and Dnipro Lotsmanska (south station).
Two express passenger services run each day betweenKyiv and Dnipro under the name 'Capital Express'. Other daytime services include suburban trains to towns and villages in the surroundingDnipropetrovsk Oblast. Most long-distance trains tend to run at night to reduce the amount of daytime hours spent travelling by each passenger.
The city is served byDnipro International Airport (IATA:DNK) and is connected to European and Middle Eastern cities with daily flights. It is located 15 km (9.3 mi) southeast from the city centre.A Russian attack on 10 April 2022 completely destroyed the airport and the infrastructure nearby.[266]
Water transportation
The city has a river port located on the left bank of theDnieper. There is also a railway freight station.
Education
Oles Honchar National University is one of the leading establishments of higher education in Ukraine. It was founded in 1918.
There are 163 educational institutions among them schools, gymnasiums and boarding schools. For children of pre-school age there are 174 institutions, also a lot of out-of -school institutions such as centre of out-of-school work. Eighty-seven institutions that are recognized on all Ukrainian and regional levels.
In a survey in June–July 2017, adult respondents reported the following educational levels:[247]
1% primary or incomplete secondary education
13% general secondary education
46% vocational secondary education
39% university education (including incomplete university education)
In 2006 Dnipropetrovsk hosted the All-Ukrainian Olympiad in Information Technology; in 2008, that for Mathematics, and in 2009 the semi-final of the All-Ukrainian Olympiad in Programming for the Eastern Region. In the same year as the latter took place, the youth group 'Eksperiment', an organisation promoting increased cultural awareness amongst Ukrainians, was founded in the city.
Higher education
Dnipro is a major educational centre in Ukraine and is home to two of Ukraine's top-ten universities; theOles Honchar Dnipro National University andDnipro Polytechnic National Technical University.The system of high education institutions connects 38 institutions in Dnipro, among them 14 of IV and ІІІ levels of accreditation, and 22 of І and ІІ levels of accreditation. In year 2012 National Mining Institute was on the 7th and National University named after O. Honchar was on the 9th place among the best high education institutions in "TOP-200 Ukraine" list.
The list below is a list of all current state-organised higher educational institutions (not included are non-independent subdivisions of other universities not based in Dnipro).
Oles Honchar Dnipro National University was founded 90 years ago. At the present day it has nationwide meaning and consists of 20 faculties, 80 specialities, 43 laboratories and scientific-research institutes.
The central thoroughfare is known as AkademikYavornytskyi Prospekt, a wide and long boulevard that stretches east to west through the centre of the city. It was founded in the 18th century and parts of its buildings are the actual decoration of the city. In the heart of the city is Soborna Square, which includes theTransfiguration Cathedral founded by order ofCatherine the Great in 1787.[44] On the square, there are some remarkable buildings: the Museum of History,Diorama "Battle of the Dnieper" (World War II).
TheUkrposhta for the city was once housed at theCentral Post Office, a 20th-century building. Rising magnificently above the Dnieper, the building's tower has become one of the most identifiable features in the city.[268][269]
A few areas retain their historical character: all of Central Avenue, some street-blocks on the main hill (the Nagorna part) betweenLesya Ukrainka Avenue and Embankment, and sections near Globa (formerly known asChkalov park until it was renamed) and Shevchenko parks have been untouched for 150 years.[citation needed]
The river keeps the climate mild.[citation needed] It is visible from many points in Dnipro. From any of the three hills in the city, one can see a view of the river, islands, parks, outskirts, river banks and other hills.
There was no need to build skyscrapers in the city in Soviet times. The major industries preferred to locate their offices close to their factories and away from the centre of town. Most new office buildings are built in the same architectural style as the old buildings. A number, however, display more modern aesthetics, and some blend the two styles.
The UOC'sDnipropetrovsk House Of Organ And Chamber Music is a performance hall and an Eastern Orthodox cathedral from the 20th century. In addition, the structure is a national architectural and historical landmark.[278]
TheSaint Nicholas Church in Dnipro is a national monument and the Eastern Orthodox cathedral of the UOC from the 19th century. It is located on what was formerly Novi Kodaky property and is the oldest church in Dnipro.[279][280]
In 2008 the city built a new soccer stadium; theDnipro-Arena has a capacity of 31,003 people and was built as a replacement for Dnipro's old stadium,Stadium Meteor.[284] The Dnipro-Arena hosted the2010 FIFA World Cup qualification game betweenUkraine andEngland on 10 October 2009. The Dnipro Arena was initially chosen as one of the Ukrainian venues for their jointEuro 2012bid withPoland. However, it was dropped from the list in May 2009 as the capacity fell short of the minimum 33,000 seats required byUEFA.[287] The city is home toBC Dnipro, champion of the2019–20 Ukrainian Basketball SuperLeague. The team plays its home games at thePalace of Sports Shynnik.
Peter Arshinov (1886–1937) – Ukrainian anarchist revolutionary and intellectual, chronicled the history of theMakhnovshchina, a stateless anarchist society in Ukraine.
^The city's mayorBorys Filatov described the renaming of the city as "controversial and irrelevant".[28]Oleksandr Vilkul (who stood against Filatov at the2015 mayoral election) claimed that 90% of residents were opposed to the change in the city's name.[28]
^On 1 June 2016 the Ukrainian parliament refused to support a resolution to cancel the renaming.[29] On 16 June 2016, 48 MPs appealed against the renaming in theConstitutional Court of Ukraine.[30] The Constitutional Court refused to consider this case on 12 October 2016.[29]
^There is some confusion concerning the date of this map. According to theimage file the map is by Schubert and dates from about 1860, butUkrainian Wikipedia claims that it dates from 1885. The map shows the old (railway)Amur Bridge [uk] across the river, which was completed in 1884.
^At the start of the 2018–2019 academic year, there were 31 Russian-speaking secondary schools left in the whole ofDnipropetrovsk Oblast.[95] At the time the conversion of these 31 schools to Ukrainian language education was planned to be completed by 2023.[95]
^This monument of Yefim Pushkin was erected 1967 and was intended to symbolize theliberation of Dnipro from theNazis by theSoviet army.[229] On 5 January 2023, the day after the monument was dismantled, Mayor of DniproBorys Filatov claimed that Yefim Pushkin "defended our city when the Soviet command was incompetent, in just a few days, surrendering a huge industrial centre to the advancingNazis."[230] Filatov also claimed that theT-34 tank of the monument was of a modification of 1967 and so could have never been driven by Pushkin.[230]
^"Heohrafichni nazvy" [Geographical names].Ukrainskyi pravopys [Ukrainian Orthography](PDF) (in Ukrainian) (1st ed.). Kharkiv: Ukrainian State Publisher, USRR National Commissariat of Education. 1929. p. 76.Назви міст кінчаються на-ське,-цьке (а не -ськ, -цьк) [Names of cities end in -ske, -tske (and not -sk, -tsk)]
^Zhuk, S (2010).Rock and Roll in the Rocket City: The West, Identity, and Ideology in Soviet Dniepropetrovsk, 1960–1985. Woodrow Wilson Center Press with Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN978-0801895500.
^LB.ua,Днепропетровск собираются "переименовать" в честь Святого Петра (Dnepropetrovsk to be "renamed" in honour of St. Peter), 29 December 2015.
^ab"Dnipropetrovsk renamed Dnipro". UNIAN. Retrieved19 May 2016.The decision comes into force from the date of its adoption. (in Ukrainian)Верховна Рада України (Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine),Поіменне голосування про проект Постанови про перейменування міста Дніпропетровська Дніпропетровської області (№3864) (Roll-call vote on the draft resolution on renaming of Dnipropetrovsk Dnipropetrovsk region №3864), 19 May 2016.
^abKyiv Post,Verkhovna Rada renames Dnipropetrovsk as Dnipro, 19 May 2016.
^Plokhy, Serhii,The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine, pub Oxford University Press, 2001,ISBN0-19-924739-0, pages 26, 37, 40, 51, 60–1, 142, 245, and 268.
^abKavun, Maksim.Загадки Преображенского собора [Riddles surrounding the Transfiguration Cathedral] (in Russian). Gorod.dp.ua. Retrieved27 July 2019.
^abCharles Wynn.Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms: The Donbass-Dnepr Bend in Late Imperial Russia, 1870–1905 – "[The Empress] and her favorite, Prince Grigorii Potemkin, the city's first governor-general and the de facto viceroy of southern Russia, had big plans for Ekaterinoslav. Potemkin envisioned Ekaterinoslav as the 'Athens of southern Russia' and as Russia's third capital – 'the centre of the administrative, economic, and cultural life of southern Russia.'"
^Skirda, Alexandre (2004).Nestor Makhno–Anarchy's Cossack: The Struggle for Free Soviets in the Ukraine 1917–1921. Translated by Sharkey, Paul. Oakland, CA: AK Press.ISBN1-902593-68-5.OCLC60602979. (page 77)
^Megargee, Geoffrey P.; Overmans, Rüdiger; Vogt, Wolfgang (2022).The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV. Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 298, 349, 384.ISBN978-0-253-06089-1.
^abwww.mongabay.com Russia – Geography states: "Since 1990 Russian experts have added to the list the following less spectacular but equally threatening environmental crises: the Dnepropetrovsk-Donets and Kuznets coal-mining and metallurgical centres, which have severely polluted air and water and vast areas of decimated landscape;..."
^Eugene.com states that the population in the early 19th century was 6,389, while Cheba states that this was the population in 1800.
^Kardasis, Vassilis,Diaspora Merchants in the Black Sea: The Greeks in Southern Russia, 1775–1861, pub Lexington Books, 2001,ISBN0-7391-0245-1, page 34.
^ChebaArchived 22 March 2017 at theWayback Machine states that in a census for 1 January 1866 the population was 22,846.Eugene.com states 22,816 for 1865, while DJC.com states 22,846 for 1865.
^abConversion from contemporary Imperial Russian roubles to 2007 currency used the following method: (1) Conversion to contemporary Sterling usedtable 18, which accompanies Marc Flandreau and Frédréric Zumer's bookThe Making of Global Finance, 1880–1913, OECD 2004. (2) Conversion to 2007 Sterling used RPI data from Table 63 ofNational Income Expenditure and Output of the United Kingdom 1855–1965, by CH Feinstein, pubCambridge University Press, 1972 andRetail Prices Index: annual index numbers of retail prices 1948–2007 (RPI) (RPIX) (3) Conversion to 2007 US Dollars used the calculated 2007 Sterling value and the average exchange rate for 2007, i.e. $1=£0.49987, taken fromFXHistory: historical currency exchange rates. It would have been better to have used contemporary ruble/dollar exchange rates and US RPI data, but the latter were not available to author (March 2008).
^Conversion from 1940 roubles to 2007 currency used a similar method to that used with Imperial Russian roubles, with the following used to generate rouble to Sterling exchange rate for 1940.Kawlsky, Daniel,Stalin and the Spanish Civil War Chapter 11 quotes a rate for the 1930s of 5.3 roubles per US dollar.measuringworth.com quotes a 1940 exchange rate of $1000000=£261096.61.
Михаил Александрович Шатров (Штейн). Город на трёх холмах. – Днепропетровск: Промiнь, 1969. (in Russian)
Алексей Николаевич Толстой. Хождение по мукам. – М.: Художественная литература, 1976. (in Russian)
Дмитрий Яворницкий. История города Екатеринослава. – Днепропетровск: Сiч, 1996. (in Russian)
Справочник "Освобождение городов: Справочник по освобождению городов в период Великой Отечественной войны 1941—1945" / М. Л. Дударенко, Ю. Г. Перечнев, В. Т. Елисеев и др. М.: Воениздат, 1985. 598 с. (in Russian)
Описание населенных мест Екатеринославской губернии на 1-е января 1925 г. – Екатеринослав: Типо-Литография Екатерининской ж.д., 1925. – 635 с. (in Russian)
Zhuk, Sergei I. (2010).Rock and Roll in the Rocket City: The West, Identity, and Ideology in Soviet Dniepropetrovsk, 1960–1985 '. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press & Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. pp. 18–28.
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![Stalinist architecture blends with the post-modernism of Dnipro's 'Passage' shopping and entertainment centre[234]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPassage%2c_Dnepropetrovsk.jpg)
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