Situated around a high plateau by the banks of theTigris river on which stands the historicDiyarbakır Fortress, it is the administrative capital of theDiyarbakır Province of southeasternTurkey. It is the second-largest city in theSoutheastern Anatolia Region. As of December 2021, the Metropolitan Province population was 1,791,373 of whom 1,129,218 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of the 4 urban districts (Bağlar,Kayapınar,Sur andYenişehir).
Diyarbakır has been a main focal point of theconflict between the Turkish state and variousKurdish separatist groups, and is seen by many Kurds as the de facto capital ofKurdistan.[4][5] The city was intended to become the capital of anindependent Kurdistan following theTreaty of Sèvres, but this was disregarded following subsequent political developments.[6][7][8]
On 6 February 2023 Diyarbakır was affected by the twinTurkey-Syria earthquakes, which inflicted some damage on its city walls.[9]
In ancient times the city was known asAmida, a name which could derive from an older Assyrian toponymAmedi.[10] The nameĀmid was also used inArabic.[11][12] The nameAmit is found in official documents of theEmpire of Trebizond from 1358.[13]
After theMuslim conquests of the 7th century, the city became known asDiyar Bakr (Arabic:ديار بكر,romanized: Diyār Bakr,lit. 'the abode of [the tribe of] Bakr'), in reference to the territory of theBanu Bakr tribe, theDiyar Bakr.[12][14][15] That tribe had already settled innorthern Mesopotomia during the pre-Islamic period. In the 7th century, during the caliphate ofUthman and under the regional governorship ofMu'awiya, a portion of the tribe was ordered to settle further north in the lands near the city.[12] The city was later also known inTurkish as Kara-Amid ("Black Amid"), on account of its black basalt walls.[16]
In November 1937, Turkish PresidentAtatürk visited the city and after expressing uncertainty on the exact etymology of the city's name, "Diyarbekir", in December of the same year ordered that it be renamed "Diyarbakır", which means "land of copper" in Turkish after the abundant resources ofcopper around the city.[17] This was one of the early examples of theTurkification process of non-Turkish place names, in which non-Turkish (Greek, Kurdish, Armenian, Arabic and other) geographical names were changed to Turkish alternatives.[18][19]
TheArmenian name of the city isTigranakert/Dikranagerd (Տիգրանակերտ).[20] It is known asAmed inKurdish[21] and inSyriac asܐܡܝܕ (Āmīd).[22]
At some stage, Amida became a see of theArmenian Church. The bishops who held the see in 1650 and 1681 were infull communion with theHoly See, and in 1727 Peter Derboghossian sent his profession of faith to Rome. He was succeeded by two more bishops of theArmenian Catholic Church, Eugenius and Ioannes ofSmyrna, the latter of whom died inConstantinople in 1785. After a long vacancy, three more bishops followed.[30][31][32][33][34] The diocese had some 5,000 Armenian Catholics in 1903,[35] but it lost most of its population in the 1915Armenian genocide. The lastdiocesan bishop of the see, Andreas Elias Celebian, was killed with some 600 of his flock in the summer of 1915.[30][31][32][33]
Following their victory, the Ottomans established theDiyarbekir Eyalet with its administrative centre in Diyarbakır. The Eyalet of Diyarbakır corresponded to today'sTurkish Kurdistan, a rectangular area between theLake Urmia toPalu and from the southern shores ofLake Van toCizre and the beginnings of theSyrian Desert, although its borders saw some changes over time. The city was an important military base for controlling the region and at the same time a thriving city noted for its craftsmen, producing glass and metalwork. For example, the doors ofRumi's tomb inKonya were made in Diyarbakır, as were the gold and silver decorated doors of the tomb ofEbu Hanife inBaghdad. Ottoman rule was confirmed by the 1555Peace of Amasya which followed theOttoman–Safavid War (1532–1555).
Depiction of Diyarbakır in a 17th-century Ottoman map, possibly created byEvliya Çelebi
Concerned with independent-mindedness of theKurdish principalities, theOttomans sought to curb their influence and bring them under the control of the central government inConstantinople. However, removal from power of these hereditary principalities led to more instability in the region from the 1840s onwards. In their place,sufi sheiks and religious orders rose to prominence and spread their influence throughout the region. One of the prominent Sufi leaders wasShaikh Ubaidalla Nahri, who began a revolt in the region between LakesVan andUrmia. The area under his control covered both Ottoman andQajar territories. Shaikh Ubaidalla is regarded as one of the earliest proponents ofKurdish nationalism. In a letter to aBritish Vice-Consul, he declared: "The Kurdish nation is a people apart... we want our affairs to be in our hands."
A 2018 report by Arkeologlar Derneği İstanbul found that, since 2015, 72% of the city's historicSur district had been destroyed through demolition and redevelopment, and that laws designed to protect historic monuments had been ignored. They found that the city's "urban regeneration" policy was one of demolition and redevelopment rather than one of repairing cultural assets damaged during the recent civil conflict, and because of that many registered historic buildings had been completely destroyed. The extent of the loss of non-registered historic structures is unknown because any historic building fragments revealed during the demolition of modern structures were also demolished.[51] As of 2021, large parts of the city and district were restored and government officials were looking towards tourism again.[52][53][54][26]
Many residences and buildings collapsed or suffered substantial damage in the2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes around 200 miles (300 km) from the epicentre.[55][56][57] A Turkish professor and former journalist from the country commented, "It is like having an epicenter of an earthquake inHarrisburg and buildings in New York City are collapsing."[58]
In the2014 local elections,Gültan Kışanak andFırat Anlı of thePeace and Democracy Party (BDP) were elected co-mayors of Diyarbakır. However, on 25 October 2016, both were detained by Turkish authorities "on thinly supported charges of being a member of theKurdistan Workers Party (PKK)".[61] The Turkish government ordered a general internet blackout after the arrest.[62] Nevertheless, on 26 October, several thousand demonstrators at Diyarbakir city hall demanded the mayors' release.[61] Some days later, the Turkish government appointed an unelected state trustee as the mayor.[63] In November, public prosecutors demanded a 230-year prison sentence for Kışanak.[64]
In January 2017, the un-elected state trustee appointed by the Turkish government ordered the removal of theAssyrian sculpture of a mythological winged bull from the town hall, which had been erected by the BDP mayors to commemorate the Assyrian history of the town and its still resident Assyrian minority. All Kurdish language street signs were also removed, alongside the shutting down of organisations concerned with Kurdish language and culture, removal of Kurdish names from public parks, and removal of Kurdish cultural monuments and linguistic symbols.[65][66]
In the2019 municipal elections,Adnan Selçuk Mızraklı of theHDP party was elected mayor of Diyarbakir.[67] In August 2019 he was dismissed and subsequently sentenced to 9 years and 4 months imprisonment accused of supporting terrorism as part of a government crackdown against politicians of theKurdishHDP party; the Turkish state appointedMünir Karaloğlu in his place.[68] Other Kurdish mayors in Kurdish cities across the region also suffered a similar fate, withTurkish President Erdoğan vowing to remove any future Kurdish mayors too.[69][70] Protests against the decision arose which were suppressed by the Turkish police with the use of water cannons; some protestors were killed.[71][72][73]Diyarbakır's prison has become home to manypolitical prisoners, mainlyKurdish activists and politicians accused of terrorism charges by the Turkish state. Inmates have been subject to torture, rape, humiliation, beating, murder and other abuses.[74]
Historically, Diyarbakır producedwheat andsesame.[75][76] They would preserve the wheat inwarehouses, with coverings ofstraw and twigs fromlicorice trees. This system would allow the wheat to be preserved for up to ten years.[75][26] In the late 19th and early 20th century, Diyarbakır exportedraisins,almonds, andapricots to Europe.[76]Angora goats were raised, and wool andmohair was exported from Diyarbakır. Merchants would also come fromEgypt,Istanbul, andSyria, to purchase goats andsheep.[77]Honey was also produced, but not so much exported, but used by locals.Sericulture was observed in the area, too.[78]
Prior to World War I, Diyarbakır had an activecopper industry, with six mines. Three were active, with two being owned by locals and the third being owned by the Turkish government.Tenorite was the primary type of copper mined. It was mined by hand by Kurds. A large portion of the ore was exported to England. The region also producediron,gypsum,coal,chalk,lime,jet, andquartz, but primarily for local use.[79]
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At the turn of the 19th century, the Christian population of the city was mainly made up of Armenians and Assyrians.[42] The Assyrian and Armenian presence dates to antiquity.[81] There was also a small Jewish community in the city.[82] All Christians spoke Armenian and Kurdish. Notables spoke Turkish. In the streets, the language was Kurdish.[83] According to theEncyclopædia Britannica from 1911, the population numbered 38 thousand, almost half being Christian and consisting of "Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Turkomans, Armenians, Chaldeans, Jacobites, and a few Greeks".[84] During the Governorship ofMehmed Reshid in theVilayet of Diyarbakır, the Armenian population of Diyarbakir was resettled and exterminated.[85]
After World War II, as the Kurdish population moved from the villages and mountains to urban centres, Diyarbakir's Kurdish population continued to grow.[86] Diyarbakır grew from a population of 30,000 in the 1930s to 65,000 by 1956, to 140,000 by 1970, to 400,000 by 1990,[87] and eventually swelled to about 1.5 million by 1997.[88] During the 1990s, the city grew dramatically due to the immigrant population from thousands ofKurdish villages depopulated by Turkey during theKurdish–Turkish conflict.[89]
According to a November 2006 survey by the Sûr Municipality, 72% of the inhabitants of the municipality useKurdish most often in their daily speech due to the overwhelming Kurdish majority in the city, followed by minorities ofAssyrian,Armenian andTurkish.[90]
There are someAleviTurkmen villages around Diyarbakır'sold city, but there are no official reports about their population numbers.[82][91]
There is local jewelry making and other craftwork in the area. Folk dancing to the drum andzurna (pipe) are a part of weddings and celebrations in the area. The Diyarbakir Municipality Theatre was founded in 1990, and had to close its doors in 1995.[96] It was re-opened in 1999,[96] under MayorOsman Baydemir. It was closed down in 2016 after the dismissal of the mayor in 2016.[97][98] The Municipality City Theatre alsoperformed plays in the Kurdish language.[97][99]
One of the other common celebrations in Turkey isNowruz. This celebration is done on the pretext of the beginning of spring and the beginning of thenew year. The establishment of Nowruz has a long history, so much so that it has been celebrated in different parts ofAsia for the past three thousand years, especially in theMiddle East. In different parts of Turkey, especially theKurdish regions of this country, Nowruz is considered one of the most important cultural and historical traditions of these regions. Lighting a fire, wearing new clothes, holding a dance ceremony, and giving gifts to each other are some of the activities that are done in this celebration.[26][100][101][102][103]
Diyarbakır's cuisine includes lamb dishes which use spices such asblack pepper,sumac andcoriander; rice,bulgur and butter. Local dishes include Meftune, lamb meat and vegetables with garlic and sumac, and Kaburga Dolması, baked lamb's ribs stuffed with rice, almonds and spices.[104] Watermelons are grown locally and there is an annual Watermelon Festival.[105]
The Evli Beden or Ulu Beden Tower in the southern city walls, built in 1208 during the Artuqid period byNasir al-Din Artuq Arslan.[106][107]
The core of Diyarbakır is surrounded by an almost intact set of high walls of black basalt forming a 5.5 km (3.4 mi) circle around the old city. There are four gates into the old city and 82 watch-towers on the walls, which were built in antiquity and restored and extended by theRoman emperorConstantius II in 349. The area inside the walls is known as the Sur district; before its recent demolition and redevelopment this district had 599 registered historical buildings.[51] Nearby isKaraca Dağ.[citation needed]
Great Mosque of Diyarbakır built by theSeljuk Turkish SultanMalik Shah in the 11th century. The mosque, one of the oldest in Turkey, is constructed in alternating bands of black basalt and white limestone (The same patterning is used in the 16th century Deliler Han Madrassah, which is now a hotel). The adjoiningMesudiye Medresesi/Medreseya Mesûdiyeyê was built at the same time, as was another prayer-school in the city,Zinciriye Medresesi/Medreseya Zincîriyeyê.
Behram Pasha Mosque (Beharampaşa Camii/Mizgefta Behram Paşa) – anOttoman mosque built in 1572 by the governor of Diyarbakır, BehramPasha, noted for the well-constructed arches at the entrance.
Sheikh Matar Mosque withDört Ayaklı Minare/Mizgefta Çarling (the Four-legged Minaret) – built by Kasim Khan of theAq Qoyunlu.
Fatihpaşa Camii/Mizgefta Fetih Paşa – built in 1520 by Diyarbakır's firstOttoman governor, Bıyıklı Mehmet Paşa ("the moustachioed Mehmet pasha"). The city's earliest Ottoman building, it is decorated with fine tilework.
Hazreti Süleyman Mosque/Mizgefta Hezretî Silêman (1155–1169) Süleyman son ofHalid Bin Velid, who died capturing the city from the Arabs, is buried here along with his companions.
Hüsrevpaşa Camii/Mizgefta Husrev Paşa – the mosque of the second Ottoman governor, 1512–1528. Originally the building was intended to be a school (medrese)
İskender Paşa Camii/Mizgefta Îskender Paşa – a mosque of an Ottoman governor, in black and white stone, built in 1551.
Melek Ahmet Camii/Melek Ahmed Paşa a 16th-century mosque with tiled prayer-niche and for the double stairway up the minaret.
Nebii Camii/Mizgefta Pêxember – anAq Qoyunlu mosque, a single-domed stone construction from the 16th century.Nebi Camii means "the mosque of the prophet" and is named for the inscriptions in honour of the prophet on itsminaret.
Safa Camii/Mizgefta Palo – built in the middle of the 15th century under Uzun Hasan, ruler of theAq Qoyunlu (White Sheep Turkomans) tribe[108] and restored in Ottoman time in 1532.
St. Giragos Armenian Church – first built in 1519, the current structure is from 1883, and was recently restored after a long period of disuse.[109]
TheSyriac OrthodoxChurch of Our Lady (Syriac:ܐ ܕܝܠܕܬ ܐܠܗܐ `Idto d-Yoldat Aloho,Turkish:Meryemana kilisesi), was first constructed as a pagan temple in the 1st century BC. The current construction dates back to the 3rd century, has been restored many times, and is still in use as a place of worship today.[110]
Sülüklü Han, built circa 1680, now a popular café and meeting spot.[116]
TheDicle Bridge, an 11th-century bridge with ten arches.
Urfa Kapi, Urfa Kapi (Urfa Gate) is one of the four main gates built in the 4th century Byzantine era city walls of Diyarbakir that leads the road from the west to the town of Urfa.[117]
Diyarbakır has aMediterranean (Köppen climate classification:Csa) or an anomalously warm, hot-summeroceanic climate (Trewartha climate classification:Doa). Summers are very hot and very dry, due to its location on theMesopotamian plain which is subject to hot air masses from thedeserts ofSyria andIraq to the south. The highest recorded temperature was 46.2 °C (112.64 °F) on 21 July 1937. Winters are chilly with moderate precipitation and frosty nights. Snowfall is quite common between the months of December and March, snowing for a week or two.[citation needed] The lowest recorded temperature was −24.2 °C (−10.12 °F) on 11 January 1933. Highest recorded snow depth was 65 cm (25.6 inches) on 16 January 1971.
Climate data for Diyarbakır (1991–2020, extremes 1929–2023)
^M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Diyarbakır".The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-530991-1.
^SeeÜngör, Uğur (2011),The Making of Modern Turkey: Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913–1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 244.ISBN0-19-960360-X.
^Nişanyan, Sevan (2010).Adını unutan ülke: Türkiye'de adı değiştirilen yerler sözlüğü (1. basım ed.). İstanbul: Everest Yayınları.ISBN978-975-289-730-4.OCLC670108399.
^Western Armenian pronunciation:Dikranagerd;Hovannisian, Richard G. (2006).Armenian Tigranakert/Diarbekir and Edessa/Urfa. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers. p. 2.ISBN978-1-56859-153-7.The city that later generations of Armenians would call Dikranagerd was actually ancient Amid or Amida (now Diyarbekir or Diyarbakır), a great walled city with seventy-two towers...
^Adem Avcıkıran (2009).Kürtçe Anamnez Anamneza bi Kurmancî (in Turkish and Kurdish). p. 55.
^Smith, J. Payne."ܐܡܝܕ". Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1903.
^Trevor Bryce,The Kingdom of the Hittites, 1999 p. 137
^Edwards, Robert W. (2016). "Diyarbakır". In Paul Corby Finney (ed.).The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans. p. 115.ISBN978-0-8028-9016-0.
^abcÖzoğlu, Hakan (2004).Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries. SUNY Press. pp. 47–49.ISBN978-0-7914-5993-5.
^Metin Heper; Sabri Sayari (7 May 2013).The Routledge Handbook of Modern Turkey. Routledge. p. 247.ISBN978-1-136-30964-9.It was thus only in recent times that Diyarbakır, the unofficial capital of Turkey's Kurdish area, became a predominantly Kurdish town.
^Kirişci, Kemal (June 1998). "Turkey". In Janie Hampton (ed.).Internally Displaced People: A Global Survey. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd. pp. 198, 199.
^Houston, Christopher (2005), "Creating a Diaspora within a Country: Kurds in Turkey", in Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R.; Skoggard, Ian (eds.),Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 403–414,doi:10.1007/978-0-387-29904-4_40,ISBN978-0-387-29904-4
^abYeğen, Mesut (April 1996). "The Turkish state discourse and the exclusion of Kurdish identity".Middle Eastern Studies.32 (2):216–229.doi:10.1080/00263209608701112.ISSN0026-3206.
^Plant, Ian Michael (2004).Women Writers of Ancient Greece and Rome: An Anthology. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 229.ISBN978-0-8061-3621-9.Aetius: A Greek from Amida (in Mesopotamia), who wrote on philosophy in the mid- sixth century AD in Alexandria.
^Meade, Richard Hardaway (1968).An introduction to the history of general surgery. Saunders. p. 108.OCLC438114.Aetius of Amida, who lived in the sixth century A.D. and was the first Greek physician who was a Christian, had a chapter on aneurysms in his book on surgery.
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